Introduction
to the Knowledge
of Herbs.
By
Georg Christian Oeder,
Doctor of Medicine, Royal Professor of Botany.
Second Part, With Copper Engravings.
Copenhagenn , 1764.
Published by the widow of Frank Christian Mumme, and printed by Nicolaus Möller, Royal Court Printer.
Contents of the Second Part
Ninth Section: Drafts of the methods presented in writings.§§ 145–164Tenth Section: Drafts of several still unexecuted arbitrary methods.§§ 165–171
Eleventh Section: Explanation of § 146.Characters of such natural classes and families of herbs—some already recognized, others presumed—that occur in Northern Europe.§§ 172–208
Twelfth Section: Concise history of the science and reflections on its current state.§§ 209–239
Thirteenth Section: Notice of botanical writings.§§ 240–242
First Appendix: Alphabetical index of technical terms.
Second Appendix: Explanation of terminology through illustrations, on 14 copper plates. Note regarding § 96.
Copperplates.
Introduction
to the Knowledge
of Herbs.
Ninth Section.
§. 145.
To clarify the drafts of methods presented in the following three sections, and to explain the principal natural classes, it will be most useful to begin with a list of Northern European plants, such as that in Flora Svecica by Mr. von Linné. For the sake of brevity, this will include only his generic names, marked with numbers, so that each genus can be briefly and conveniently indicated at the place where, according to the rules of each method, it properly belongs. The order in which I arrange this list is not a strictly arbitrary method, much less do I present it as a coherent natural system; yet it seems to me to group the natural families quite well according to their affinities, and to leave them undisturbed. With this, I do not mean to say that I will observe this very order in the future list of Danish plants, for in the determination of similarities and in the arrangement of plants according to their affinities, there is always something to improve. And in compiling such a list, one is obliged to follow the best insights available at the time of writing.§. 146.
The main sections of the present register, when the order is considered as a mixed method, are as follows:Classess
A. Flowerless plants — Cryptantheræ(Plants without visible flowers, e.g. mosses, algae, fungi)B. Plants with pointed seeds — Monocotyledones(Monocots: plants with a single seed leaf, e.g. grasses, lilies)
C. Plants with flowers in catkins — Amentaceæ(E.g. birch, hazel, willow)
D. Inconspicuously flowering plants — Incompletæ(Plants with reduced or incomplete floral structures)
E. Plants with fruit-bearing calyx — Calycicarpæ(Where the floral covering is fused to or persists around the fruit)
K. Plants with flower-bearing calyx — Calycanthemæ(With prominent, showy calyx structures, e.g. roses)
G. Plants with single-petaled flowers — Monopetalæ(Corolla formed by one united petal, e.g. bellflowers)
H. Plants with multi-petaled flowers — Polypetalæ(Flowers with several distinct petals, e.g. buttercups, roses)
Families
AA. Thread-like and crusty plants — Filamentous & CrustaceousAB. Fungi — Fungi
AC. Mosses — Musci
AD. Ferns — Filices
BA. Grasses — Gramina
BB. Grass-like with catkin flowers — Graminoideæ amentaceæ
BC. Grass-like with floral blossoms — Graminoideæ corolloideæ
BD. With three-petaled flowers — Tripetaloideæ
BE. With flowers in spadices — Spathaceæ clavatæ
BF. Lily-like — Liliaceæ
BG. Orchid types — Orchideæ
CA. Coniferous trees — Acerosæ
CB. With flowers in catkins — Juliferæ
DA. Aquatic plants with naked fruit — Inundatæ, Gymnospermæ
DB. With compact blossoms — Oleraceæ
DC. With capsules and berries — Capsuliferæ & Baccatæ
EA–EE. With united fructifications via the structure and base of the flower — Fructificationes collectæ receptaculo communi
EA. With compound flowers — Compositæ
EB. Scabious types — Aggregatæ
EC. Umbel-bearing — Umbelliferæ
ED. Star-like — Stellatæ
EE. Berry-bearing — Baccatæ
EF. With solitary fructifications — Fructificationes solitariæ
FA. With rose-like blossoms — Rosaceæ
FB. With dry capsules — Calycanthemæ L.
GA. Spirally flowering with 4 naked seeds — Asperifoliæ
GB. Whorled-bearing with 4 naked seeds — Verticillatæ
GC. With mask-shaped flowers — Personatæ
GD. With regular flowers and one capsule — Regulares capsuligeræ
GE. With uncertain stamen position — Bicorneæ L.
HA. With semi-united petals — Monopetaloidæ
HB. Succulent with many capsules — Succulentæ
HC. With many capsules arranged in a ring — Rostratæ
HD–HF. With fleeting flower and calyx — Perianthio caduco Rhoeades.
HD. With many capsules — Multicapsular
HE. Poppy types — Papaverinæ
HF. With cruciform flowers — Tetrapetalæ cruciatæ
HG. With persistent floral calyx and one capsule — Calyce persistente
HH. With fleshy receptacle — Receptaculo fungoso
HI. Pea flowers — Papilionaceæ
Genera.
AA
1. Byffus.2. Conferva.
3. Spongia.
4. Viva .
5. Fucus.
6. Tremella,
7. Lichen,
8. Riccia.
9. Blafia.
10. Marchantia,
11. Jungermannia.
AB.
12. Mucor,13. Lycoperdum.
14. Peziza.
15. Clavaria .,
16. Elvela.
17. Clathrus.
18. Phallus.
19. Hydnuma
20. Boletus.
21. Agaricus.
AC .
22. Buxbaumia23. Hypnum.
24. Bryum.
25. Mnium ..
26. Polytrichum
27. Splachuum. 2
8. Fontinalis.
29. Phaſcum.
30. Sphagnum.
31. Lycopodium.
AD .
32. Iloëtes.33. Pilularia .
34. Equisetum .
35. Ophiogloſlum ,
36. Osmunda .
37. Acroſtichum.
38. Afplenium.
39. Pteris.
40. Polypodium ,
AB.
41. Lolium.42. Triticum .
14. Peziza.
43. Elymus,
44 Hordeum ,
45. Cynofurus
46. Panicum ,
47. Phalaris.1
48. Holcus.
49. Phleum.
50. Dactylis .
51. Melica .
52. Avena.
53. Milium.
54. Arundo .
55. Nardus.
56. Anthoxanthum,
57. Alopecurus.
58. Agrostis .
59. Briza.
60. Bromus.A
61. Festuca ,
62. Aira,
63. Poa.
BB .
64. Schænus.65. Scirpus .
66. Cyperus.
67. Eriophorum
68. Carex .
69. Sparganium.
BC .
70. Juncus.71. Scheuchzeria.
72. Triglochinum
BD.
73. Alisma,74. Sagittaria.
75. Butomus.
76. Hydrocharis.
77. Stratiotes.
BE .
78. Zoſtera,79. Typha.
80. Acorus.
81. Arum .
82. Calla ,
BF .
83. Iris.84. Tulipa.
85. Fritillaria.
86. Ornithogalum.
87. Anthericum.
88. Afparagus.
89. Allium.
90. Convallaria.
BG.
91, Orchis.92. Satyrium.
93. Ophrys.
94. Serapias.
95. Cypripedium.
CA.
96, Pinus.97. Taxus.
98. Juniperus.
99. Empetrumn .
CB .
100. Salix.101. Populus.
102. Quercus,
103. Corylus.
104. Fagus.
105. Vlmus.
106. Carpinus.
107. Betula.
108. Myrica.
109. Xanthiumt
110 Vrtica.
111 . Humulus
DA .
112. Chara.113. Hippuris.
114. Callitriche.
115. Zannichellia.
116. Ruppia.
117. Lemna.
118. Salicornia,
119. Ceratophyllum.
120. Myriophyllum
121. Potamogeton.
DB.
122. Polygonum.123. Rumex.
124. Parietaria,
125. Herniaria.
126. Chenopodium.
127. Salfola. :
128. Atriplex.
129. Amaranthus ,
130 Scleranthus.
DC .
131 Mercurialis.132 Euphorbia.
133 Hippophaë.
134. Vifcum,
135. Theſium.
136 Daphne.
137. Afarum.
EA.
138. Tragopogon.139 Scorzonera.
140. Picris,
141. Sonchus .
142. Lactuca.
143. Prenanthes.
144. Leontodon.
145. Hieracium.
146. Crepis .
147. Hyoferis.
148 Hypochæris.
149. Lapfana.
150. Cichorium.
151. Arctium,
152. Serratula,
153. Carduus.
154. Cnicus,
155. Onopordon,
156. Carlina.
157. Centaurea.
158. Erigeron.
159. Gnaphalium.
160. Filago.
161. Chryfocoma.
162. Eugpatorium.
163. Tanacetum.
164. Artemisia.
165. After.
166. Inula.
167. Arnica .
168. Tuſſilago.
169. Solidago,
170. Othonna.
171. Senecio.
172. Chrysanthemum.
173. Bellis.
174. Calendula ,
175. Matricaria.
176. Anthemis.
177. Achillza .
178. Coreopfis ,
179. Bidens.
ER .
180, Scabiofa.181. Globularia ,
182. Statice,
183. Valeriana
184. Dipfacus,
EC .
185. Eryngium.186 Hydrocotyle .
187. Bupleurum.
188. Heracleum.
189. Insperatoria.
190. Paſtinaca.
191. Angelica.
192. Laferpitium.
193. Ligusticum.
194. Conium.
194.* Cicuta.
195. Sium.
196. Selinum.
197. Athamanta.
198. Bunium.
199. Sifon.
200. Phellandrium ,
201. Oenanthe. s.
202. Sanicula,
203. Daucus
204 Tordylium.
205. Ethuſa.
206. Scandix.
207. Charophyllum.
208. Carum.
209. Pimpinella.
210. Apium.
211. Ægopodium
ED.
212. Sherardia.213. Afperula .
214. Galium.
EE .
215. Sambucus.216. Viburnum.
217. Hedera.
218. Lonicera.
219. Linnæa.
220. Circza,
221. Cornus
EF .
222. Chryfofplenium,223. Saxifraga.
224. Samolus.
225. Campanula.
226. Jafione,
227. Lobelia.
228. Bryonia
FA.
229. Prunus.230. Pyrus.
231. Meſpilus.
232. Cratægus.
233. Sorbus.
234 Ribes.
235 Rhamnus.
236. Spiraea,
237. Rubus.
238. Rofa.
239. Fragaria .
240. Potentilla,
241. Tormentilfa.
242. Comarum.
243. Sibbaldia.
144. Alchemilla .
245. Aphanes.
246. Geum.
247. Dryas.
248. Agrimonia.
FB.
249. Epilobium.250. Lythrum.
251. Peplis .
252. Trapa.
GA.
253. Pulmonaria.254. Cynogloffum.
255. Anchufa.
256. Lithofpermum .
257. Myofotis.
258. Symphytum.
259. Afperugo .
260. Lycopfis.
261. Echium.
GB.
262. Verbena,263. Lycopus .
264. Mentha.
265. Thymus.
266. Ajuga.
267. Teucrium,
268. Salvia.
269. Betonica.
270. Glechoma ,
271. Lamium.
272. Galeopf .
273. Stachys.
274. Leonurus.
275. Dracocephalum.
276. Prunella.
277. Clinopodium.
278. Origanum.
279. Marrubium,
280. Ballota.
281. Nepeta.
282. Scutellaria
GC,
283. Veronica.284. Digitalis.
285. Bartfia .
286. Rhinanthus,
287. Euphrafia.
288. Melampyrum.
289. Pedicularis.
290. Antirrhinum.
291. Scrophularia ,
292. Orobanche,
293 Lathraea.
294. Pinguicula.
295. Vtricularia.
296. Montia,
297. Limofella.
GD .
298. Verbafcum,299. Polemonium.
300. Convoluulus.
301. Hyoscyamus.
302. Datura
303. Solanum.
304. Afclepias.
305. Gentiana .
306. Menyanthes.
307. Lyfirmachia ,
308, Anagallis.
309. Centunculus.
310. Trientalis ,
311. Hottonia, 312. Glaux.
313. Diapenfia,
314. Primula.
315. Androface,
316. Adoxa ,
317. Sanguiforba.
318. Plantago.
319. Cuscuta.
320. Ilex .
321. Ligustrum.
322 , Fraxinus
GE ,
323. Vaccinium,324. Arbutus.
325. Andromeda.
326. Ledum,
327. Erica,
328. Azalea.
329. Pyrola .
330. Tamarix.
331. Monotropa.
HA .
332. Cucuhalus.333. Silene.
334. Lychnis.
335. Agroftemma,
336. Dianthus,
337. Gypsophila,
338 Droſera.
339. Stellaria.
340. Arenaria.
341. Cerastium,
342. Spergula.
343. Alfine.
344. Sagina,
345. Elatine ,
HB.
346. Sedum,347. Tillaæ,
348. Rhodiola.
349. Sempervivum,
HC,
350, Linum,351. Oxalis.
352. Geranium.
353. Malva,
354. Althaea.
HD.
355. Thalictrum.356. Anemone.
357. Adonis,.
358. Ranuncults.
359. Myofurus.
360. Caltha
361. Trollius.
362. Aquilegia
363. Aconitum.
364. Delphinium,
HE.
365. Actaea.366. Chelidonium,
367. Papaver.
368. Fumaria,
369. Impatiens.
HF.
370. Sifymbrium.371. Eryfinum,
372. Cheiranthus.
373. Braffica.
374. Turritis.
375. Arabis..
376. Dentaria.
377. Cardamine,
378. Sinapis.
379. Raphanus.
380. Iſatis.
381. Bunias.
382. Crambe.
384. Alyffum.
385. Myagrum,
386. Cochlearia,
387. Lepidium.
388. Draba
389. Iberis.
390. Thlaspi.
391. Subularia.
HG.
392. Cistus.393. Hypericum.
394. Paris.
395. Nymphaea.
396. Parnaſffia.
397. Reſeda.
398. Viola
HH .
399. Berberis.400. Euonymus.
401. Acer.
402. Tilia
HI.
403. Pifum.404. Orobus.
405. Lathyrus.
406. Vicia.
407. Ervum.
408. Astragalus.
409. Phaca .
410. Lotus.
411. Coronilla .
412. Medicago.
413. Trifolium,
414. Ononis.
415. Anthyllis.
416. Geniſta.
417. Spartium.
418. Polygala,
§. 147.
Mr. von Linné's natural orders.
1. Palmæ. 76.77.
2. Piperitæ. 78.80-82.
3. Calamariæ. 64-69.79.
4. Gramina. 41-63 .
5. Tripetaloideæ. 70-75.
6. Enfatæ. 83 .
7. Orchideæ. 91-950
* 8. Scitamineæ.
9. Spathaceæ. 89.
10. Coronariæ. 84-87.
11. Sarmentaceæ. 88.90. 137-394
12. Holoraceæ. 125 - 128.114. 122. 123. 118.
13. Succulentæ, 330.346-349. 222. 223. 316.
14. Gruinales. 350-352.
15. Inundatæ. 113. 115. 116.119-121.345.
16. Calycifloræ. 133
17. Calycanthemæ. 249-251.312.
18. Bicornes. 323-329.
* 19. Heſperideæ.
20. Roraceæ. 305.307-310-393-
21. Preciæ. 311. 313-315.306. 224. 297.
22. Caryophyllæi. 332-337.339-344.130.
23. Trihilatæ. 401.
24. Corydales. 368-369.294.295.
25 . Putamineæ.
26. Multifiliquæ. 355-365 .
27. Rhœades. 366. 367.
28. Luridæ. 284.298.301-303 .
29. Campanaceæ. 299. 300. 225-227-398.
30. Contortæ. 304 .
2. Piperitæ. 78.80-82.
3. Calamariæ. 64-69.79.
4. Gramina. 41-63 .
5. Tripetaloideæ. 70-75.
6. Enfatæ. 83 .
7. Orchideæ. 91-950
* 8. Scitamineæ.
9. Spathaceæ. 89.
10. Coronariæ. 84-87.
11. Sarmentaceæ. 88.90. 137-394
12. Holoraceæ. 125 - 128.114. 122. 123. 118.
13. Succulentæ, 330.346-349. 222. 223. 316.
14. Gruinales. 350-352.
15. Inundatæ. 113. 115. 116.119-121.345.
16. Calycifloræ. 133
17. Calycanthemæ. 249-251.312.
18. Bicornes. 323-329.
* 19. Heſperideæ.
20. Roraceæ. 305.307-310-393-
21. Preciæ. 311. 313-315.306. 224. 297.
22. Caryophyllæi. 332-337.339-344.130.
23. Trihilatæ. 401.
24. Corydales. 368-369.294.295.
25 . Putamineæ.
26. Multifiliquæ. 355-365 .
27. Rhœades. 366. 367.
28. Luridæ. 284.298.301-303 .
29. Campanaceæ. 299. 300. 225-227-398.
30. Contortæ. 304 .
31. Vepreculæ. 135. 136.
32. Papilionaccӕ . 403-417.
33. Lomentaceæ. 418.
34. Cucurbitaceæ. 228 .
35. Senticoſæ. 237-245-
36. Pomaceæ, 229-234.236.
37. Columniferæ. 353.354. 402.
38. Tricoccæ. 131. 132.
39. Siliquoſæ. 370-391.
40. Perſonatæ. 283-293-
41. Afperifoliæ. 253-261 .
42. Verticillatæ. 262-282.
43. Dumofæ. 215. 216.235.320.400.
44. Sepiariæ. 321. 322.
45. Vmbellatæ. 185-211 .
46. Hederaceæ. 217 .
47. Stellatæ. 212-214.221 .
48. Aggregatæ. 180-184.218-220.134.
49. Compofitæ.
Capitatæ. 151-157 .
Semiflofculoſæ. 138-150.
Diſcoideæ. 158. 159.161-163.165-177.
Oppofitifoliæ. 178. 179.
Nucamentaceæ. 109. 160. 164.
50. Amentaceæ. 100-104. 106-108.
51. Coniferæ. 96-98.34.
* 52. Coadunatæ. 53. Scabridæ. 105. 110. 111. 124.
54. Mifcellaneæ. 397. 317. 117.99. 129. 395
55. Filices. 32. 33-35-40.
56. Mufci. 22-31.
57. Algæ. 6-11 . 2. 4. 5. 112,
58. Fungi. 1.3.12-21 .
59. Dubii ordinis. 399.319.99.331.296.318.252.
32. Papilionaccӕ . 403-417.
33. Lomentaceæ. 418.
34. Cucurbitaceæ. 228 .
35. Senticoſæ. 237-245-
36. Pomaceæ, 229-234.236.
37. Columniferæ. 353.354. 402.
38. Tricoccæ. 131. 132.
39. Siliquoſæ. 370-391.
40. Perſonatæ. 283-293-
41. Afperifoliæ. 253-261 .
42. Verticillatæ. 262-282.
43. Dumofæ. 215. 216.235.320.400.
44. Sepiariæ. 321. 322.
45. Vmbellatæ. 185-211 .
46. Hederaceæ. 217 .
47. Stellatæ. 212-214.221 .
48. Aggregatæ. 180-184.218-220.134.
49. Compofitæ.
Capitatæ. 151-157 .
Semiflofculoſæ. 138-150.
Diſcoideæ. 158. 159.161-163.165-177.
Oppofitifoliæ. 178. 179.
Nucamentaceæ. 109. 160. 164.
50. Amentaceæ. 100-104. 106-108.
51. Coniferæ. 96-98.34.
* 52. Coadunatæ. 53. Scabridæ. 105. 110. 111. 124.
54. Mifcellaneæ. 397. 317. 117.99. 129. 395
55. Filices. 32. 33-35-40.
56. Mufci. 22-31.
57. Algæ. 6-11 . 2. 4. 5. 112,
58. Fungi. 1.3.12-21 .
59. Dubii ordinis. 399.319.99.331.296.318.252.
Of those marked with *, no specimens are found in Northern Europe.
§. 148.
Mr. Adanson's families,
1. Byffi. 1. 2.
2. Fungi. 7.12-21.
3. Fuci . 4-6.
4. Hepaticæ. 8-11.
5. Filices. 32-40.
*6. Palmæ.
7. Gramina, 41-69.79.
8. Liliaceæ. 70.71.80.83-90.
9. Zingiberes.
10. Orchides. 91 - 95.
11. Aristolochiæ. 137.395.76.77
12. Elæagni. 133-135.113 .
13. Onagræ. 252.220.249.
*14. Myrti.
15. Vmbelliferæ . 185 - 211 .
16. Compofitæ. 138-179.
17. Campanulæ. 225-227.
18. Bryoniæ. 228 .
19. Aparines. 212.214.
20. Scabiofæ. 181.183.184.
21. Caprifolia. 215. 216.218.219.221 .
22. Vaccinia. 323-329.
23. Apocyna. 304.
24. Borragines. 253-261.
25. Labiatæ. 263-282 .
26. Verbenæ. 262.
27. Perſonatæ. 283-295-297-301.
28. Solana . 302. 303 .
29. Jasmina. 321.318.313 .
2. Fungi. 7.12-21.
3. Fuci . 4-6.
4. Hepaticæ. 8-11.
5. Filices. 32-40.
*6. Palmæ.
7. Gramina, 41-69.79.
8. Liliaceæ. 70.71.80.83-90.
9. Zingiberes.
10. Orchides. 91 - 95.
11. Aristolochiæ. 137.395.76.77
12. Elæagni. 133-135.113 .
13. Onagræ. 252.220.249.
*14. Myrti.
15. Vmbelliferæ . 185 - 211 .
16. Compofitæ. 138-179.
17. Campanulæ. 225-227.
18. Bryoniæ. 228 .
19. Aparines. 212.214.
20. Scabiofæ. 181.183.184.
21. Caprifolia. 215. 216.218.219.221 .
22. Vaccinia. 323-329.
23. Apocyna. 304.
24. Borragines. 253-261.
25. Labiatæ. 263-282 .
26. Verbenæ. 262.
27. Perſonatæ. 283-295-297-301.
28. Solana . 302. 303 .
29. Jasmina. 321.318.313 .
30. Anagallides. 296.307-312. 314. 315.
31. Salicariæ. 250. 251 .
32. Portulacæ. 222-224.234.316.319.
33. Seda. 346. 349.
34. Alfines. 332-337-339-345.
35. Blita. 124-129 ..
* 36. Jalappa.
37. Amaranthi. 330. 350.
* 38. Spergulæ.
39. Perficariæ. 122. 123 .
40. Thymeleæ. 182.180.136.
41. Rofæ. 230-248 .
42. Zizyphi. 400.
43. Leguminofæ. 403-417.
44. Piſtaciæ. 108 .
45. Tithymali. 418. 132.
*46 Annonæ.
47. Caftaneæ. 100-103.105-107. 110.
48. Tiliæ. 401. 402.
49. Gerania. 351.352.398.
50. Malvæ. 353-354-
51. Capparides. 397.
52. Cruciferæ. 370-391 .
53. Papavera. 365-369.399.
54. Cifti. 99. 322. 331. 392-394.396.
55. Ranunculi. 360-364.73-74-355-359.
56. Ara. 69. 72.78.81. 82. 112. 114-117. 119-121.
57. Pinus. 96-98-34-
58. Mufci. 22-31 .
31. Salicariæ. 250. 251 .
32. Portulacæ. 222-224.234.316.319.
33. Seda. 346. 349.
34. Alfines. 332-337-339-345.
35. Blita. 124-129 ..
* 36. Jalappa.
37. Amaranthi. 330. 350.
* 38. Spergulæ.
39. Perficariæ. 122. 123 .
40. Thymeleæ. 182.180.136.
41. Rofæ. 230-248 .
42. Zizyphi. 400.
43. Leguminofæ. 403-417.
44. Piſtaciæ. 108 .
45. Tithymali. 418. 132.
*46 Annonæ.
47. Caftaneæ. 100-103.105-107. 110.
48. Tiliæ. 401. 402.
49. Gerania. 351.352.398.
50. Malvæ. 353-354-
51. Capparides. 397.
52. Cruciferæ. 370-391 .
53. Papavera. 365-369.399.
54. Cifti. 99. 322. 331. 392-394.396.
55. Ranunculi. 360-364.73-74-355-359.
56. Ara. 69. 72.78.81. 82. 112. 114-117. 119-121.
57. Pinus. 96-98-34-
58. Mufci. 22-31 .
Note.
Of those marked with *, no specimens are found in Northern Europe.
§. 149.
Herrn v. Royen’s Method.
Classes
A. With pointed germination (monocotyledons)B. With two-leafed germination (dicotyledons)——————— Classes
AA. With a single floral envelope
– 1. Palmæ – Palms
AB. Without floral covering
– 2. Lilia – Lilies
AC. With a floral covering made of small sheaths
– 3. Gramina – Grasses
BA. With a common covering for many flowers
BB. With an individual covering for each flower
BAA. With flowers in catkins– 4. Amentaceæ – Catkin-bearing plants
BAB. With flowers in umbels– 5. Umbelliferæ – Umbel-bearers (e.g., carrot family)
BAC. With compound flowers and fused stamens– 6. Compositæ – Composite flowers (e.g., daisy family)
BAD. With compound flowers and free stamens– 7. Aggregatæ – Aggregated flowers
BBA. With capsules containing three seeds and three compartments
– 8. Trisocce – Triseeded
Z. BBB. With variously shaped fruits
ZA. With exposed stamens
ZB. With hidden stamens
YA. With a simple floral covering– 9. Incompletæ – Incomplete flowers
TB. With flower and floral covering together
YBA. With connection and fusion of stamens
YBB. Without such connection
XA. With stamens on the young fruit– 10. Fructifloræ – Fruit-flowered
XB. With stamens from the floral covering– 11. Calycifloræ – Calyx-flowered
XC. With two shorter and two longer stamens– 12. Ringentes – Gaping flowers
XD. With two shorter and four longer stamens– 13. Siliquosæ – Silique-bearers (e.g., mustard family)
XE. With all stamens fused– 14. Columniferæ – Column-bearers
XF. With stamens fused into two bundles– 15. Leguminosæ – Legume-bearers (pea family)
UA. With a single row of stamens– 16. Oligantheræ – Few-stamened
UB. With a double row of stamens– 17. Diplantheræ – Double-stamened
UC. With many stamens– 18. Polyantheræ – Many-stamened
ZBA. Plants with hidden stamens
– 19. Cryptantheræ – Hidden-stamened
ZBB. Petrified (fossilized) plants
– 20. Lithophyta – Stone plants / Fossil plants
The key to this method was evidently created afterward,once the natural classes had already been determined,in order to show some connection among them and with the other genera,as far as it could reasonably be done.The declared intent of its originator was more to attemptan approximation to the plan of naturethan to provide a strictly arbitrary method.For the purpose of guiding beginners, it is truly too difficult,as understanding the headings of its divisionsrequires knowledge that one cannot presume in a beginner.
Implementation of this system.
1st Class
a. Without complete flower. 115. 116. 80–82.
b. With bilobed calyx. 76. 77.
c. With fused stamens and styles. 91–95.
d. With three stamens. 83.
2nd Class
a. With single-petaled flower. 88. 90.
b. With six-petaled flower. 84–87.
c. With perianth. 89. 70.
d. With multiple styles. 87. 71–73. 75.
3rd Class
a. With one style. 64–67.
b. With two styles and separate petals. 46. 49. 50. 51. 53. 55–58.
c. With two styles and multiple petals in a small spikelet. 41–45. 47. 52. 54. 59–63.
d. With separated sexes. 48. 68. 69. 79.
4th Class
a. With free-standing stamens. 100–104. 106–111.
b. With fused stamens. 96–98.
5th Class
a. With simple umbel. 185. 186. 202.
b. With double involucre. 203. 204. 191–199.
c. With one of each kind of involucre. 200. 201. 205–207. 187. 189.
d. Without any involucre. 188. 190. 208–211.
6th Class
a. With curved flowers. 138–150.
b. With knob-shaped flower. 151–157.
c. With flat-standing flower. 159–164. 168. 171. 179.
d. With star-shaped flower. 158. 165–178.
7th Class
a. With single-petaled flowers. 180. 181. 184.
b. With five-petaled flowers. 182. 226.
8th Class
131. 132. 296.
9th Class
a. With naked blossom. 113. 118.
b. With two-parted flower. 114.
c. With three-parted flower. 99. 137. d. With four-parted flower. 133. 136. 222. 110. 124. 112. 119–121.
e. With five-parted flower. 135. 130. 125. 122. 126–128. 111. 217. 105. 235.
f. With six-parted flower. 123.
g. With eight-parted flower. 244. 245.
10th Class
a. With flowers without fixed position. 183. 218. 219. 323. 317. 248. 227.
b. With flowers in false umbels. 215. 216.
c. With five-parted flower. 224. 225.
d. With four-parted flower. 221. 316. 229. 212–214.
11th Class
a. With single-petaled flower. 228.
b. With five-petaled flower. 229–243. 246.
c. With eight-petaled flower. 247.
12th Class
a. With covered seeds. 220. 283–295.
b. With naked seeds. 262–282.
13th Class
a. With short pod. 382–391.
b. With long pod. 370–381.
14th Class
a. With simple floral covering. 352.
b. With double floral covering. 353. 344.
15th Class
a. With regular legume. 403–406. 416. 417.
b. With irregular legume. 368. 407–414. 418.
16th Class
a. With two stamens. 321. 322.
b. With four stamens. 134. 318–320.
e. With five stamens.ca. With four naked seeds. 253–261.
cb. With two fruit pods. 304.
cc. With one capsule with one chamber. 307–309. 311. 338.
cd. With capsule with multiple chambers. 298–303. 305. 306. 330. 350. 398. 369. 400.
d. With six stamens. 399.
e. With seven stamens. 310.
17th Class
a. With two points on the anthers. 324. 325. 327. 329.
b. With carnation-like flowers. 332–337. 339. 345.
c. With upright stamens. 223. 250. 346–349. 351. 394. 401.
18th Class
a. With simple seed stalk. 392. 393. 402. 365–367. 395.
b. With multiple capsules. 360–364. 397.
c. With naked seeds. 355–359. 74.
19th Class
a. Ferns. 35–40.
b. Mosses. 22–31.
c. Algae. 1–11. 112. 117.
d. Fungi. 12–21.
20th Class
Vacant.
§. 150.
Herrn von Haller’s Method.
A. Plants without flowers, stamens, and blossoms, only with seeds.B. Plants with seeds and a form of flower.
C. Plants with seeds and stamens without a flower.
D. Plants with seeds, stamens, and a flower.
BA. Without any trace of stamens.
BB. With something similar to stamens.
BC. With flower-bearing leaves.
BBA. With stem and leaves as separate parts.
BBB. With stem and leaves combined.
CA. With fused stamens in separate sexes.
CB. With stamens in catkins in separate sexes.
CC. With as many stamens as parts of the flower-like covering.
CD. With a smaller number of stamens.
CE. With a double number of stamens.
CF. With many stamens.
CG. Various water plants.
CH. With three stamens under a covering of small bracts.
CI. Grass-like plants.
DA. Plants with pointed seedling.
DB. Plants with two-leafed seedling.
DAA. Without style.
Z.DAB. With styles.
Y.DBA. With many stamens.
X.DBB. With double number of stamens.
U.DBC. With equal number of stamens.
T.DBD. With fewer stamens.
S.DBE. With six stamens, against four floral petals.
R.DBF. With ten stamens, against four floral petals.
Q.DBG. With four stamens of unequal length.
P.DBH. With combined flowers, each on a seed.
Note.
The arrangement of families in this method was initially established, the key came later, and one cannot express it better, or comment on all methods where the primary intent is to preserve the natural families, than as the venerable founder himself has stated:
"I have," he says in Enum, Helv. Pref. 14, "deemed it a duty and intention to place each family between two other closely related and difficult to separate families, so that a transition from one to the other might be apparent. However, I could not fully achieve this as desired, and this is likely a matter that is scarcely possible anywhere, for from each natural family, a transition into many other such families occurs through various traits, as much in one as in the other. Nevertheless, I have followed the principle that the herbs must be grouped together that are largely similar in most respects, even if they might be quite different in some aspects. However, those must remain apart which differ in most aspects, even if there is a great similarity in a single feature. By ‘aspects,’ I also consider the overall appearance or demeanor of the plants. Thus, it does not concern me if, here and there, in a class, one finds a plant that does not exhibit the characteristic from which the name of the class was derived."
Meanwhile, Mr. von Haller has noted for each class the plants that, due to the title of the class, should be included but have been left among their relatives in other classes for better reasons, as well as those that were included solely for analogy, not according to the class titles. The former are marked with *; the latter with +.
Execution of this method.
A. 1-6, 12-21,
BA. 7-9.
BBA. 23-33.
BC. 34, 40.
BBB. 10, 11, 22.
CA. 96-98.
CB. 100-104, 106-109.
CC. 105, 110, 111, 123-129, 134, 217, 235, 245.322. († 99, 133, 122.)
CD. 244.CE. 130, 222. † 136. * 133.
CF. 131, 132, 137. * 99.
CG. 112-121.CH. 41-63.
Cla. With three stamens under a scale. 65-68.
CIb. With six stamens within six floral segments. 64, 70-72, 80.
CIc. With three stamens within three segments. 69, 79. († 81, 82.)
DAA. 9-95.Za. With the flower on the fruit. 83.
b. With the flower around the fruit.
ba. With a single-leafed flower. 90.
bb. With a six-leafed flower.
bba. With a single flower. 84-88.
bbb. With gathered flowers. 89.
Ya. With multiple capsules from a single flower. 74, 75, 361-364, 397. († 73, 76, 77, 395-365-367, 236, 355, 396.)
Yb. With many naked seeds.
Yba. With a flower from the fruit base. 356-358. (* 74, 236, 355-)Ybb. With a flower from the flower cover. 237, 239-242. † 243.
Yc. With fruit shaped like a fruit.
Yca. With a navel. 230-234, 238.1.
Ycb. Without a navel. 229.
Yd. With a fruit with sections. 402, 392, 393. († 76, 365-367, 395, 397.)
Ye. With fused stamens. 353, 354.Χ. 248-250, 316, 323-327-329-337-339, 343, 346, 348, 349, 351, 352, 394. († 350, 338, 251, 328, 401.) (* 136, 73, 120, 121.)
Ua. With a spongy base for the reproductive parts, and with covered seeds. 399, 400.
Ub. With the same base, with naked two-seeded seeds, and the flower on top. Umbelliferae.
Uc. Other plants with the flower on the fruit.
Uca. With a two-leafed flower. 220.Ucb. With a four-leafed flower. 212-214, 221.
Ucc. With a five-leafed flower. 215, 216, 218.
Ud. With a single-leafed flower around the fruit.
Uda. With a four-parted flower. 318-320.
Udb. With a five-parted flower. 305-309, 299, 300, 302, 225-227, 369, 398.
Ue. Squash-like plants. 228.
Uf. Spiral-flowering plants. 253-261.
Ug. With two fruit pods. 304.
U. (* 234, 243, 350, 396, 338, 251, 328, 347, 235, T. 321, 283. * 114.)
Sa. With a short pod.
Saa. With a parallel septum. 383, 384, 388.
Sab. With the septum across. 385-387, 389-391.
Sb. With a long pod. 370-382.
Ra. With a pod with two sections. 408.
Rb. With a pod with one section. 403-407, 409-417.
Rc. Related with fewer than ten threads. 368, 418.
Qa. With a capsule with one section. 292-297, 219.
Qb. With a capsule with two sections. 284-291.
Qc. With four naked seeds.
Qca. Without an upper lip. 266, 267.
Qcb. With a three-parted upper lip. 282.
Qec. With an uncut upper lip. 276, 268-275.
Qed. With a two-part upper lip. 262-265, 277-281.P. 138-183.
Special classification of grass species and plants with umbellate flowers, as well as plants with compound flowers, or of the divisions CH, Ub, and P.
CHa. With a flower from two small pods.
CHb. With a flower from one pod.z.
Chaa. Without a flower cover.
y. Chab. With a flower cover from one pod.
x. Chac. With a flower cover from two small pods.
za. With a spike from one flower.
zb. With a spike from three flowers.
ya. With a spike from one flower.
yb. With a spike from many flowers.
xa. With a flower cover without awns.
xb. With a flower cover with awns.
xaa. With a spike without hair.
xab. With a spike with hair.
u. xaaa. With a flower with awns.
t. xaab. With a flower without awns.
ua. With awns from the tip of the small pod.
ub. With awns from the back of the small pod.
uaa. With all flowers in one spike.
uaa. With all flowers in one raceme.
uba. With a curved awn.
uba. With a straight awn.
ta. With many flowers in one spike.
b. With one flower in one spike.
xba. With a flower with awns.
xbb. With a flower without awns.
xbaa. With many flowers in one spike.
xbab. With one flower in one spike.
Uba. With an unclear umbel.
Ubb. With a visible umbel.
y. Ubba. Without a common base for all seeds.
Ubbb. With a common base.
ya. With thick striped seeds.
yb. With thick winged seeds.
yc. With flat seeds.
yd. With spiny seeds.
ye. With thick rough seeds.
yf. With long pointed seeds.
yaa. Without an umbel cover.
yab. With one or both covers.
yaaa. With uniform flower segments.
yaab. With unequal flower segments.
yba. With four or more wings.
ybb. With two wings.
Pa. Without a common flower cover.
Pb. With a common flower cover.
Pba. With free-standing stamens.
Pbb. With fused anthers.
z. Pbba. With flowers from purely tubular flowers.
y. Pbbb. With starry flowers.
x. Pbbc. With flowers from purely curved flowers.
za. With bulbous flowers.zb. With flat flowers.
zaa. With purely hermaphroditic flowers.
zab. With sexless flowers on the edge.
zaaa. With simple scales of the flower cover.
a. With a lattice-like fruit base.
b. With a hairy fruit base.
zaab. With branching scales.
zba. With naked seeds.zbb. With crowned seeds.
a. With a bare base.
b. With a hairy base.
ya. With naked seeds.
yb. With seeds with a hair crown.
yaa. With scaly base.yab. With bare base.
xa. With bare base.xb. With scaly base.
xaa. With seeds with a hair crown.
xab. With bare seeds.
xba. With seeds with a crown.
xbb. With bare seeds.
Reminder.
Because the Hallersian and Linnaean genera are often different, and it would be too lengthy to list individual species, only the classifications are indicated in these special methods, without listing the plants belonging to each.
§. 151.
Tournefort’s Method of Flowers
A. HerbsB. Trees and Shrubs
AA. With flower
AB. Without flower
AAA. With a simple flower
AAB. With a composite flower
Z. AAAA. With a single-leaf flower
Y. AAAB. With a multi-leaf flower
Classifications:
ZA. With bell-shaped flower. 1.
ZB. With funnel- and wheel-shaped flower. 2.
ZC. With irregularly shaped flower. 3.
ZD. With flowers with lips. 4.
YA. With four leaves arranged in a cross. 5.
TB. With rose-shaped flower. 6.
TC. With rose-shaped flower in umbels. 7.
YD. With clove-shaped flower. 8.
YE. With lily-shaped flower. 9.
TF. With pea-like flower. 10.
YG. With irregularly shaped flower. 11.
AABA. With tubular flowers. 12.
AABB. With twisted flowers. 13.
AABC. With starry flower. 14.
ABA. With flowers without petals. 15.
ABB. With fruit without flowers. 16.
ABC. Without flowers or fruit. 17.
BA. Trees with flowers without petals. 18.
BB. Trees with flowers in catkins. 19.
BC. Trees with single-leaf flower. 20.
BD. Trees with rose-shaped flower. 21.
BE. Trees with pea-like flower. 22.
Notes:
Tournefort first decided to establish classes and genera, and only later thought about the method itself.(J.R.H. p. 50). He was guided by previously recognized classes that he intended to keep undisturbed, and this led him to the general organizing principles that we now see in his method. The seventh class was established before the sixth was conceived. The eighth could have stayed within the sixth if it had not naturally formed its own class. The ninth class is natural but does not fit into the method’s planned structure. Classes 4, 5, 10, 11, 12, and 13 led him to use the shape of the flower as a distinguishing feature of the class. The sections a-d in the fifth class prompted him to add the other sections. The sixth and twenty-first classes were influenced by sections ae in the former and section e in the latter.When considered as an arbitrary method designed so that an independent beginner might use it, it is not strict enough, and the concepts and terms are not defined clearly enough.
Regarding B. This classification was made by Tournefort out of favor for the common terms used in daily life.(J.R.H. p. 75).
Regarding AB. Here, there is often uncertainty about the terms Calyx and Corolla.
Regarding Classes 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 8, 9, 11, 20, 21. The concepts of flower shapes are too vague.
Execution of this Method:
Preliminary Reminder: The primary basis for the sub-divisions is taken from the connection between the young fruit and the other reproductive parts. His expressions are:Pistillum abides in fruit, Calyx abides in fruit, and the first occurs when the reproductive organs are connected below, the latter when they are connected at the top of the embryo.
1st Class
a. With free-standing fruit.
aa. With berry. 90.
ab. With capsule. 305, 300, 132, 312.
ac. With pod. 304.
ad. With fused stamens. 353, 354.
b. With fruit from the flower calyx.
ba. With fleshy fruit. 228.
bb. With dry fruit. 225, 214.
2nd Class
a. With funnel-shaped flower and free-standing fruit. 301, 302, 305, 306, 314.
b. With flower in plate form and free-standing fruit. 315, 314, 318.
c. With funnel-shaped flower and fruit from the flower calyx. 183.
d. With funnel-shaped or radial flower, with four naked seeds. 253-261.
e. With radial flower.
ea. With free-standing fruit.
eaa. With capsule. 307-309, 222, 224, 283, 298, 299.
eab. With berry. 316, 303.
eb. With fruit from the flower calyx. 317.
3rd Class
a. With enclosed flowers. 81, 82.
b. With flowers with a tongue. 227.
c. With open flower at both ends. 284, 291, 294.
d. With mask-shaped flower. 285-290, 292, 293, 295.
4th Class
a. With helmet-shaped or sickle-shaped (upper) lip. 268, 275, 276, 282.
b. With spoon-shaped lip. 263, 264, 271-274, 280.
c. With upright lip. 262, 265, 269, 277-279, 281.
d. Without upper lip. 266, 267.
5th Class
a. With short fruit with one chamber. 380, 382, 385.
b. With short fruit with a septum in profile. 386, 387, 390, 389, 391.
c. With short fruit and parallel septum. 383, 384, 388.
d. With pod with two chambers. 370-371, 373-374, 376-379.
e. With pod with one chamber. 366.
f. With fruit with many chambers. 381.
g. With many naked seeds. 121.
h. With berry. 394.
6th Class
a. With free-standing fruit.
aa. With one chamber. 129, 367, 343-341, 338, 396, 70, 392.
ab. With two chambers. 223, 250.
ac. With many chambers. 393, 329, 331, 73, 395.
ad. With many capsules. 346, 349, 236, 72, 352, 355, 75, 360.
ae. With many naked seeds. 356, 358, 359, 240-243, 246.
af. With a berry. 365.
b. With fruit from the flower calyx. 220, 248, 249.
7th Class
a. With flowers in an umbel.
aa. With small striped seeds. 187, 194, 195, 198, 200, 203, 208-210.
ab. With long pointed seeds. 201, 211, 207.
ac. With flat egg-shaped seeds. 188-190.
ad. With large seeds with furrows. 191-193.
b. With clustered flowers. 202, 186, 185.
8th Class
a. With capsule. 332-336, 350.
b. With naked seeds. 182.
9th Class
a. With single-petaled flower. 83.
b. With six-petaled flower. 84-89.
10th Class
a. With short pod with one chamber. 415.
b. With long pod with one chamber. 403-407, 411, 416, 417.
c. With long pod with two chambers. 408, 409.
d. With clover-shaped leaves. 410, 412-414.
11th Class
a. With free-standing fruit from a capsule. 368, 369, 397, 398.
b. With free-standing fruit from many capsules. 262-264.
c. With fruit from the flower calyx. 91-95.
12th Class
a. With separate sexes. 109.
b. With crowned seeds. 151-157, 168, 171, 159, 160, 162.
c. With naked seeds. 163, 164, 179.
d. With irregularly fragmented flowers. 180, 181, 184.
13th Class
a. With crowned seeds. 138-148.
b. With naked seeds. 150, 149.
14th Class
a. With crowned seeds. 165-171.
b. With naked seeds. 172-179.
15th Class
a. With fruit from the flower calyx. 137.
b. With naked seeds. 118, 122-130, 244, 245.
c. Grasses. 41, 63.
d. Grass-like. 64-69.
e. With half-separated sexes. 110.
f. With fully separated sexes. 34, 110, 111, 131.
16th Class
a. With fruit-bearing leaves. 37-40.
b. With pre-existing fruits. 35, 36, 7.
17th Class
a. Terrestrial plants. 12-31, 1-3, 8-11.
c. Aquatic plants. 4, 5.
18th Class
322, 99, 133.
19th Class
a. With half-separated sexes.
aa. With a stone fruit. 102-104, 106.
ab. With fruit under scales. 96, 107.
ac. With berry. 97, 98.
b. With fully separated sexes. 100, 101.
20th Class
a. With free-standing fruit.
aa. With berry. 235, 236, 321, 324.
ab. With flat membranous fruit. 105.
ac. With capsule. 326-328.
b. With fruit from the flower calyx. 215, 216, 218, 221, 223.
c. With separate sexes. 134.
21st Class
a. With a capsule. 402, 330.
b. With berry. 217, 399, 237.
c. With many capsules. 400, 401.
d. Stone fruit. 229.
e. Fruit. 230-234, 238.
22nd Class
416, 417.
§. 152.
Boerhavens Method.
A. Imperfect Plants, with Fruitifications without Stamens.B. Perfect Plants with Flowers.
BA. Herbs.
BB. Trees.
BAA. Two-leaved germination.
BAB. Pointed germination.
BAAA. With flower.
BAAB. Without flower.
Z.BAAAA. With naked seeds.
Y.BAAAB. With covered seeds.
Classes.
AA. Aquatic plants. 1.
AB. Terrestrial plants. 2.
AC. Ferns. 3.
ZA. With many seeds. 4.
ZB. With four seeds. 12, 13, 14.
ZC. With two seeds. 5, 11.
ZD. With individual seeds.
ZDA. With simple flowers. 6.
ZDB. With compound flowers. 7-10.
TA. In capsules.
TAA. With individual capsules. 15-20.
YAB. With several capsules. 21.
YB. In a pod. 2, 22, 23.
TC. In a husk. 24.
TD. In a berry. 25.
TE. In a fleshy fruit. 26.
BAAB. Without flower. 27.
BABA. With flower. 28.
BABB. Without flower. 29.
BBA. Pointed germinating trees. 30.
BBB. Two-leaved germinating trees.
BBBA. Without flower. 31, 32.
BBBB. With flower. 33, 34.
Note.
This method can be considered, as an arbitrary method, to have no other faults than the indefinite and ambiguous distinctions between herbs and trees in BA and BB, and between plants with and without flowers in BAAA, BAAB, BBBA, and BBBB.
Execution of this method.
1st Class. Gegewächse. 3, 4, 5.
2nd Class. 1-31.
3rd Class.
a. With simple leaves. 35, 36.
b. With compound leaves. 36-40.
4th Class. 238-242, 355-359, 73, 74.
5th Class. Umbellifers.
a. With divided leaves. 198, 201.
b. With lobed, divided leaves. 188-191, 193, 195.
c. Intermediate type of leaves. 192, 194-197, 199, 200, 203-211.
d. With simple entire leaves. 186, 187.
e. With simple divided leaves. 202, 185.
6th Class. 182, 183, 220, 248.
7th Class. With curved flowers.
a. With hair crown. 138-148.
b. Without hair crown. 149, 150.
8th Class. With star-shaped flowers.
a. With hair crown. 165-172.
b. Without hair crown. 173-178.
9th Class. With tubular flowers.
a. With hair crown. 158-162.
b. With tips. 179.
c. Without crown. 163, 164.
10th Class. Bud-shaped flowers.
a. Without bulging cover. 180-182, 185.
b. With bulging cover. 151-157.
11th Class. With starry leaves. 212-214.
12th Class. With bilabiate flowers in a whorl.
a. With two lips. 265, 266, 268-282.
b. Without upper lip. 267.
c. With flat opening. 262-264.
13th Class. With single-petaled open flower. 253-261.
14th Class. With four-petaled flower. 121.
15th Class. With simple capsule.
a. With single-petaled flower. 306-315.
b. With many-petaled flower. 332-344, 296.
16th Class. With two-parted capsule.
a. With five-petaled flower. 223, 250.
b. With single-petaled regular flower. 283, 284, 298, 301, 302, 305.
e. With single-petaled irregular flower. 285-293, 1.
17th Class. With three-parted capsule.
a. With many seeds. 392, 393, 300, 396-398, 225-227, 299.
b. With three seeds. 132.
18th Class. Four-parted capsule. 302.
19th Class. Five-parted fruit. 352.
20th Class. Many-parted fruit. 353, 354, 329, 367, 395, 76, 350.
21st Class. With many separate capsules.
a. Juicy plants. 346-349.
b. Non-juicy plants with regular flowers. 236, 75, 360.
c. Non-juicy plants with irregular flowers. 362-364.
22nd Class.
a. With four flower petals. 366.
b. With a type of pea flower. 368.
c. With two chambers. 304.
d. With four chambers. 249.
e. With five chambers. 369, 351.
23rd Class. With cross-shaped four-petaled flowers.
a. With short pods.
aa. With one chamber. 380, 382, 385.
ab. With septum in width. 383, 384, 388.
ac. With septum in transverse direction. 386, 387, 389, 390.
b. Long pods with two chambers. 376-378.
c. With segmented pods. 379.
24th Class. With legumes.
a. With simple pods.
aa. With simple leaves. 416, 417.
ab. With clover leaves. 412, 413.
ac. With five leaves. 410.
ad. With pinnate leaves. 403-407.
ae. With pods in segments. 411.
b. With double pods. 408, 409.
25th Class. With berries. 237, 228, 365, 88, 90, 303, 319, 394, 316, 81, 82.
26th Class. Vacant.
27th Class.
a. Hermaphrodites. 1
aa. With naked seeds. 122, 128.
ab. With covered seeds. 137, 129, 318, 359.
b. With half-separated sexes. 109.
c. With fully separated sexes. 110, 111, 131, 134.
28th Class.
a. With flower on the fruit. 83.
b. With flower around the fruit. 84-87, 89.
c. With many-petaled disguised flower. 91-95.
29th Class. Without flower.
a. Stem with joints and ears. 41-44.
b. Stem with joints and panicles. 45-63.
c. Round stem. 67, 70-72.
d. Triangular stem. 68.
e. With separated sexes. 69, 79, 80.
30th Class. Vacant.
31st Class. 322, 99, 133, 108.
32nd Class.
a. Stone fruit. 103, 106.
b. Scaly fruit. 102, 104.
c. Fruit under scales. 96, 107.
d. Soft fruit. 97, 98.
e. With fully separated sexes. 100, 101.
33rd Class.
a. With flower around the fruit.
aa. With berry. 135, 136, 320, 321, 324.
ab. With dry fruit. 105, 327.
b. With flower on the fruit. 215, 216, 218.
c. With separated sexes. 134.
34th Class.
a. With flower around the fruit.
ba. With berry. 217, 399.
ab. With capsules. 400, 401.
b. With flower on the fruit. 229-234, 238, 221.
§. 153.
Mr. Linnaeus' Method of Sex Organs.
Main Classifications:
A. With clearly visible sex organs.B. With unknown sex.
AA. With hermaphroditic flowers.
AB. With separate sexes.
Z.AAA. With a specific number of free-standing stamens, without variation in length.
Y.AAB. With filaments of varying lengths.
X.AAC. With fused stamens.
Classes with Their Names:
ZA. With one stamen. Monandria.ZB. With two stamens. Diandria.
ZC. With three stamens. Triandria.
ZD. With four stamens. Tetrandria.
ZE. With five stamens. Pentandria.
ZF. With six stamens. Hexandria.
ZG. With seven stamens. Heptandria.
ZH. With eight stamens. Octandria.
ZI. With nine stamens. Enneandria.
ZK. With ten stamens. Decandria.
ZL. With twelve stamens. Dodecandria.
ZM. With many filaments integrated into the flower's calyx. Icofandria.
ZN. With many filaments integrated into the fruit base. Polyandria.
YA. With two unequal pairs of filaments. Didynamia.
YB. With four long and two short filaments. Tetradynamia.
XA. With fused filaments into one bundle. Monadelphia.
XB. With fused filaments into two parts. Diadelphia.
XC. With fused filaments into more than two parts. Polyadelphia.
XD. With fused anthers. Syngenefia.
XE. With fused stamens and styles. Gynandria.
ABA. With half-separated sexes. Monoecia.
ABB. With fully separated sexes. Dioecia.
ABC. With mixed sexes. Polygamia.
B. With unknown sex. Cryptogamia.
General Remarks.
The entire method is mixed. The classes ZM and YA to XE, eight under twenty-four, do not stem from the original structure of the method but owe their existence to various natural classes that are older than the method itself and were present in the order of thought, even though they received new names based on a feature of the sexual organs.
To AAB. The difference in the length of the threads is one among many differences, and it is not only the didynamists and tetradynamists that show this difference; also, the shortness of the two threads is often only apparent due to their lower position.
To AAC. This fusion is found in many more plants that are not included in any of the five classes XA to XE, and in many, such as the Geraniums in Monadelphia, and in most Polyadelphists, it is imperceptible to a beginner who is unfamiliar with these herbs beforehand.
To ZM. The consideration underlying this class is just one among many considerations that the position and incorporation of the stamens give rise to.
To AB. The traits taken from the male flower alone are not sufficient to lead to the initial recognition of these plants, and a beginner who has an individual femininum without male, or a hermaphroditum individual from Polygamia without male or female at hand, will not know where to look in the first case and will search in vain in the second case.
In general, many species are not placed where they should be according to the laws of the method, but are left with their relatives. This would not matter if only there were a reminder at the place where a beginner following the method would search for these species, pointing to the place where they actually are, and this is required by the intent of all arbitrary methods.
Further elaboration of this method, with concise characteristics of the genera, from Systema Naturae, ed. X, Tom. II.
ZAa. With one style (stigma).
113. 118.
ZAb. With two styles (stigmas).
114.
113. Perianth: 0. Flower: 0.
118. Perianth: 1. Flower: 0.
114. Perianth: 0. Flower: 2. Capsules: 2. Chambers.
ZBa. With one style.
aa. Flower surrounding the fruit.
aaa. Regular, single-petaled: 321.
aab. Irregular, single-petaled:
aaba. Capsule: 283, 294, 295.
aabb. Naked seeds: 262, 263, 268.
ab. Flower on top of the fruit: 220.
ZBb. With two styles: 56.
321. Flower 4-parted. Berry with 4 seeds.
283. Flower 4-parted, wheel-shaped, one petal smaller.
294. Flower 2-lipped with spur. Perianth 5-parted.
295. Flower 2-lipped with spur. Perianth 2-parted.
262. Mostly regular flower. Upper lip of perianth short.
263. Mostly regular flower. Stamens standing apart.
268. Two-lipped flower. Stamens from a transverse piece on a stalk.
220. Perianth: 2. Flower: 2. Heart-shaped.
56. Grass. One flower in the spikelet, with awn.
ZCa. With one style.
aa. Flower on top of the fruit: 183, 83.
ab. Grass-like flower: 64, 67, 55.
ZCb. With two styles.
a. Flowers in panicles.
aa. Spikelet from one flower: 46, 57, 49, 47, 53, 58, 500.
ab. Spikelet from two flowers: 62, 51.
ac. Spikelet from many flowers: 59, 63, 61, 60, 52.
b. Flowers in spikes, several in each spikelet: 41–44.
ZCc. With three styles: 296.
183. Flower 5-parted, with spur or pouch. One seed.
83. Flower with 6 petals, 3 bent downward. Stigma shaped like a flower petal.
64. Flower 0. Perianth made of a tuft of small leaves. Round seed.
65. Flower 0. Perianth leaves like roof tiles. Naked seed.
66. Flower 9. Perianth leaves in two rows. Naked seed.
67. Flower 0. Perianth like roof tiles. Hairy seed.
55. Grass. Flower from two husks. Perianth 0.
46. Perianth 3 parts, one very small.
57. Flower from only one husk.
49. Perianth bluntly truncated, with 2 tips, from 2 husks of equal size.
47. Perianth larger than flower, flat, from 2 equal husks.
53. Perianth larger than flower, thick and swollen.
58. Perianth from pointed husks, somewhat smaller than flower.
50. Perianth from 2 boat-shaped, unequal husks.
62. Without such an extension as in 51.
51. With an extension for a third flower in the spikelet.
59. Heart-shaped flowers from swollen husks.
63. Egg-shaped flowers from elongated husks.
61. Long flowers from pointed husks.
60. Long flowers with an awn near the tip.
52. Long flowers with a curved awn from the back of the husk.
41. Husk from one husk around many flowers in a spikelet.
42. Perianth from 2 husks. Spikelet of about 3 flowers. Thickening at the point of attachment.
43. Husk from 2 husks. Two flowers.
44. Husk from 6 husks. Three flowers.
296. Flower: single-petaled. Perianth 2. Flower. Capsules from 3 carpels with 3 seeds.
ZDa. With one stamen-path (single stamen).
aa. Monopetalous (single-petaled) flowers.
na. With one seed grain. 181, 184, 180.
ab. With one seed capsule. Flower surrounding the fruit. 309, 318.
ac. With one seed capsule. Flower on top of the fruit. 317.
ad. With two seed grains. Flower on top of the fruit. 214, 213, 212.
ab. Four-petaled flower. 252, 221.
ac. Flower without corolla, surrounding the fruit. 244.
b. With two stamen-paths. 319, 245.
c. With four stamen-paths. 320, 344, 347, 121, 116. 181. Common floral covering. Monopetalous flower, irregular. Seed without a crown.
184. Common floral covering.
From regular leaves. Receptacle conical, leafy. Seed columnar.
180. Common floral covering.
Receptacle raised, leafy.
Seed with a crown and a covering.
309. Flower wheel-shaped. Floral covering four-parted. Capsule one-chambered, opening transversely.
318. Flower with overturned margin. Floral covering four-parted. Capsule 2–8-lobed, transversely split.
317. Flat flower. Floral covering with 2 flowers. Capsules square, between the flower and the floral covering.
214. Flat flower. Seed round.
213. Funnel-shaped flower. Seed round.
212. Funnel-shaped flower. Seed with three teeth.
252. Floral covering four-parted. Nut with spines.
221. Floral covering with four teeth, fugacious. Berry with a stone with two compartments.
244. Floral covering eight-parted. Flower 0. One seed grain enclosed in the floral covering.
319. Flower four-parted, egg-shaped. Floral covering four-parted. Capsule with 2 chambers, transversely split.
245. Flower 0. Floral covering eight-parted. Two seed grains.
320. Monopetalous flower. Floral covering with four teeth. Berry with four seeds.
344. Four-petaled flower. Floral covering four-petaled. Capsules with four compartments, many seeds.
347. Four-petaled flower. Floral covering four leaves. Four capsules with many seeds.
121. Flower 0. Floral covering four-petaled. Four seed grains without stalk.
116. Flower 0. Floral covering 0. Four seed grains with stalk.
ZEa. With one stamen-path.
a. Monopetalous flower surrounding the fruit.
aa. Four naked seed grains. 253–261.
ab. Enclosed fruit.
aba. Capsule with one chamber. 308, 307, 314, 315, 311, 306.
abb. Capsule with two chambers. 300, 302, 301, 298.
abc. Capsule with three chambers. 313, 299.
abd. Capsule with five chambers. 328.
abe. Berry. 303.
b. Monopetalous flower on top of the fruit.
ba. Capsule. 224, 225.
bb. Berry. 218.
c. Five-petaled flower surrounding the fruit. 400, 235.
d. Five-petaled flower on the fruit. 234, 217.
e. Incomplete flower. 312, 135.
ZEb. With two stamen-paths.
a. Monopetalous flower. 304, 305.
b. Incomplete flower. 127, 126, 125, 105.
c. Five-petaled flower on two seed grains.
ca. With both types of floral coverings. 185, 186, 202, 188, 201, 203, 204, 194, 198, 197, 187, 192, 195, 196, 193, 191, 199.
cb. Without a common covering. 206, 207, 205, 200, 189, 194.
cc. Without any covering. 190, 211, 210, 209, 208.
ZEc. With three stamen-paths.
a. Flower on the fruit. 216, 215.
b. Flower surrounding the fruit. 330, 343.
ZEd. With four stamen-paths. 396.
ZEe. With five stamen-paths. 350, 338, 243, 182.
ZEf. With many stamen-paths. 359.
Descriptions of numbered species (261–359):
261. Irregular flower, bell-shaped.
253. Funnel-shaped flower, prismatic floral covering.
256. Funnel-shaped flower, floral covering 5-parted.
258. Swollen flower, with tips in the throat.
260. Flower with curved tube, closed throat.
259. Funnel-shaped flower with sterile throat. Flattened floral covering and seed.
254. Funnel-shaped flower with sterile throat. Broad-flattened seed, attached at the side.
255. Funnel-shaped flower with sterile throat. Tube base square.
257. Flower plate-shaped, lobes scalloped, closed throat.
308. Capsule split transversely. Flower wheel-shaped. Stigma knobbed.
307. Capsule ten-parted. Flower wheel-shaped. Stigma blunt.
314. Funnel-shaped flower, open throat. Stigma spherical.
315. Flower with flat mouth, narrow throat. Stigma spherical.
311. Stamens above the tube of the flower. Stigma spherical.
306. Flower with fringes. Stigma two-parted.
300. Bell-shaped flower. Stigma two-parted.
302. Capsule wall four-split. Funnel-shaped flower. Deciduous floral covering.
301. Capsule with lid. Funnel-shaped flower. Spherical stigma.
298. Wheel-shaped flower. Stigma blunt.
313. Flower with flat mouth. Eight-petaled floral covering.
299. Five-parted flower. Stamens on flaps in the flower throat.
328. Bell-shaped flower. Stigma blunt.
303. Anthers with two openings.
224. Capsule with five flaps on top. Flat-mouthed flower. Stigma blunt.
225. Capsule with openings. Bell-shaped flower. Stigma three-parted.
218. Berry with two chambers. Irregular flower. Spherical stigma.
400. Capsule-like berry. Floral covering gaping. Seed with envelope.
235. Berry with three chambers. Closed mouth with five scales.
234. Berry. Two-parted stamens.
217. Berry with five seed grains. Simple stigma.
312. Capsules five-parted. Wall, five seed grains.
135. Flower on fruit, one seed grain.
304. Two fruit pods, five ear-shaped appendages at the flower.
305. Capsule with one chamber, two-parted wall.
127. One snail-shaped enclosed seed grain.
126. One naked flat-round seed grain.
125. One egg-shaped enclosed seed grain, five infertile side filaments.
105. Monopetalous clove flower. Flat juice-less berry.
185. Flower in a knob. Leafy receptacle.
186. Imperfect umbel. Flat seed.
202. Imperfect umbel. Prickly seed.
188. Flowers irregular and larger at edge. Fugacious covering. Membranous seed.
201. Starry umbel with aborted seed grains. Crowned seed.
203. Starry umbel, rough seed. Covering of boiled-down leaves.
204. Starry umbel, seed grains toothed at edge.
190. Flattened seed.
194. Roundish seed grains with longitudinal and transverse grooves.
211. Thick striped seed.
210. Fine striped seed. Inward-bent petal.
198. Covering of small bristle-like leaflets.
197. Round raised striped seed.
209. Slightly starry umbel. Umbels nodding before bloom.
187. Flower-like covering.
192. Seed with four wings.
208. Thick striped seed, some aborted.
195. Egg-shaped striped seed.
216. Berry with one seed grain.
196. Compressed striped seed.
215. Berry with three seed grains.
330. Capsule with one chamber. Hairy seed.
193. Flat petals. Membranous floral covering.
243. Capsule with one chamber. Two-parted flower.
191. Flat flower. Flower spherical umbel.
396. Capsule of four shell pieces. Five flower parts with glandular tips on edges. Five petals.
199. Flat flower. Umbel of few florets.
206. Starry umbel with aborted seeds, elongated seeds.
350. Capsule with five chambers, two seed grains per chamber. Five petals.
207. Aborted seed. Covering of five leaves.
205. Covering only on one half of the circumference.
338. Flower five-parted. Capsule with one chamber, opens at tip.
200. Crowned seed.
189. Flat broad umbel.
243. Floral covering ten-parted. Five naked seed grains.
194. Flat flower. Flower.*
182. One seed grain covered with funnel-shaped floral covering.
359. Many seed grains. Five side parts from narrow leaves.
ZFa. With one stamen channel
a. Flower with stamens and a perianth (floral envelope). 399
b. Flowers emerging from a spathe (flower sheath). 89
c. Naked flowers. 90, 87, 86, 88, 85, 84
d. Uncoloured flowers. 80, 70, 251
ZFb. With three stamen channels. 72, 123, 71
ZFc. With many stamen channels. 73
399. Berry with 2 seeds
89. Six egg-shaped petals without an elongated claw
90. Six-parted flower. Berry with three seeds
87. Six-petaled flower, flat and spreading straight outward
86. Six-petaled flower, three narrow and three broad stamens
88. Six-petaled flower. Berry with six seeds
85. Six-petaled flower, each with a nectar pit at its base
84. Six-petaled flower, three-lobed. Stigma without stamen channels
80. Club-shaped flower stalk; from a floral sheath. Capsule with three chambers
70. Five-petaled flower. Capsule with three chambers
251. Twelve-parted flower. Capsule with two chambers
72. Flower with a three-parted perianth. Capsule with three parts, opening from below
423. Three-petaled flower. Perianth three-parted. Triangular seed shape
71. Six-petaled flower. Three capsules, each with one seed
73. Three-petaled flower. Perianth three-parted. Many fruits
ZG.
310. Seven-parted, wheel-shaped flower. Berry with one chamber, dry
ZHa. With one stamen channel: 249, 323, 327, 136
ZHb. With three stamen channels: 122
ZHc. With four stamen channels: 316, 345, 394
249. Flower and perianth four-petaled. Capsule with four chambers, hairy seed
122. Incomplete, five-parted flower. A naked seed
316. Flower 4–5 parted, on the fruit. Perianth with two petals around the fruit. Berry with 4–5 seeds
323. One-petaled flower on the fruit. Stamens not emerging from the flower. Berry
327. One-petaled flower around the fruit. Four-petaled perianth. Stamens not emerging from the flower. Capsule
345. Four-petaled flower and perianth. Capsule with four chambers
394. Four long, pointed flower segments. Four-petaled perianth. Berry with four chambers
136. Incomplete, four-parted flower. Berry with one seed
ZI.
75. Flower without perianth, five-petaled. Six capsules with many seeds
ZKa. With one stamen channel
a. Many-petaled flower. 329, 326
b. One-petaled flower. 325, 324
ZKb. With two stamen channels. 130, 222, 223, 337, 336
ZKc. With three stamen channels. 340, 339, 332, 333
ZKd. With five stamen channels: 346, 342, 341, 335, 334, 351
329. Stamens upward with two horns. Capsule with five chambers, many seeds
326. Flat flower. Capsule with five chambers, many seeds
325. Bell- or globe-shaped flower. Capsule with five chambers
324. Egg-shaped flower, translucent at the base. Berry with five chambers
130. Incomplete, five-parted flower on the fruit, two seeds
222. Incomplete flower on the fruit. Capsule with two chambers
223. Five-petaled flower. Perianth five-petaled. Capsules single-chambered, with two beaks
337. Five-petaled flower. Perianth five-parted, bell-shaped. Capsule one-chambered, globe-shaped
336. Five-petaled flower. Perianth tubular, with an appendage of scales at the base. Capsule single, long
340. Capsule one-chambered. Flower petal undivided, flared open
339. Capsule one-chambered. Flower petal two-lobed, flared open
332. Capsule three-chambered. Flower petal two-lobed, without the appendage found in 333
333. Capsule three-chambered. Flower petal two-lobed, with an appendage of two points between blade and claw
346. Five capsules, five accessory parts on the capsules. Flower with five petals
342. Capsule one-chambered. Flower petal undivided. Perianth five-petaled
341. Capsule one-chambered. Flower petal two-lobed. Perianth five-petaled
335. Capsule one-chambered, long. Perianth tubular, leathery
334. Capsule three-chambered, long. Perianth tubular, membranous
354. Capsule five-chambered, angular. Flower petal somewhat connected at the base
ZLa. With one stamen channel: 137, 250
ZLb. With two stamen channels: 248
ZLc. With three stamen channels: 397, 132
ZLd. With twelve stamen channels: 349
137. Flower three- or four-parted on the fruit. Capsule with 6–8 chambers
250. Five-petaled flower. Perianth 12-parted. Capsule with 2 chambers
248. Five-petaled flower. Perianth five-parted. 1–2 seeds
397. Irregular flower petals, fringed and dissected. Perianth 4–6-parted. Capsule with one chamber, open at the top
132. Flower petals in horizontal position. Perianth swollen. Capsule with three seeds
349. Flower with 12 petals. Perianth 12-parted. Capsule with 12 chambers
ZMa. With one stamen channel: 229
ZMb. With two stamen channels: 232
ZMc. With three stamen channels: 233
ZMd. With five stamen channels: 231, 230, 236
ZMe. With many stamen channels: 238, 237, 241, 247, 239, 240, 246, 242
229. Perianth surrounding the fruit. Drupe with undivided stone
232. Perianth on the fruit. Berry with 2 seeds
233. Perianth on the fruit. Berry with 3 seeds
231. Perianth on the fruit. Berry with 5 seeds
230. Perianth on the fruit. Fruit with 5 chambers, many seeds
236. Perianth surrounding the fruit. Many capsules
238. Perianth becomes a berry-like fruit with many seeds
237. Berry composed of smaller parts
241. Perianth 8-parted. Flower 4-petaled. 8 seeds
247. Perianth 8-parted. Flower 8-petaled. Many seeds with a hairy awn
239. Perianth 10-parted. Flower 5-petaled. Receptacle becomes a berry with many seeds
240. Perianth 10-parted. Flower 5-petaled. Dry receptacle with many seeds, without awn
246. Perianth 10-parted. Flower 5-petaled. Seeds with an awn with a joint
242. Perianth 10-parted. Flower 5-petaled. Many seeds on a fleshy receptacle
ZNa. With one stamen path:
a. Four-petaled flowers: 367, 366, 365
b. Five-petaled flowers: 392, 402
c. Many-petaled flowers: 395
ZNb. With three stamen paths: 364, 353
ZNc. With five stamen paths: 362
ZNd. With six stamen paths: 77
ZNe. With many stamen paths: 355, 360, 356, 361, 358, 357
367. Flower crown with 2 petals, lid-shaped stigma
366. Flower crown with 2 petals, pod fruit
365. Flower crown with 4 petals, berry with one compartment, seeds in two rows
392. Capsules round. Flower crown with 5 petals, 3 larger, 2 smaller
77. Three-petaled flower, flower crown with 3 parts, berry with 6 compartments, in a flower sheath
402. Capsules with 5 parts. Leathery. Flower crown wilting
355. Incomplete 4-petaled flower, many naked seeds
395. Large flower crown, berry with many parts, from a substance like bark
360. Flower crown 0, five-petaled flower, many capsules
356. Flower crown 0, six-petaled flower, many seeds
364. Flower crown 0, five-petaled flower, with one spur-like part, two-lobed side parts
361. Flower crown 0, 14-petaled flower, side parts between the stamens, many capsules
363. Flower crown 0, five-petaled flower, one part in the shape of a helmet, two side parts with stems
358. Flower crown 5 petals, many seeds. Sap pit in the flower’s claw, petals
362. Flower crown 0, five-petaled flower, five side parts, horn-shaped, directed downward
357. Flower crown 5 petals, flower 5=1cbl, many angular, bark-like seeds
YAa. With naked seeds:
a. Five-parted flower crown: 274, 270, 264, 267, 266, 269, 271, 272, 273, 281, 280, 279
b. Flower crown with two lips: 282, 265, 276, 275, 278, 277
YAb. With one seed, capsule:
a. Two-parted flower crown: 292
b. Four-parted flower crown: 293, 285, 287, 286, 288
c. Five-parted flower crown: 297, 291, 284, 290, 289, 219
274. Small hard spots or little leaves on the anthers
270. Anthers paired together in the shape of a cross
264. Flower mostly regular, stamens separated
276. Stamens at the base, two-lobed
267. Flower without a lip or only with two tips
275. Flower throat swollen, bulbous
266. Upper lip short, so that the stamens protrude above
278. Flower envelope made of wide colored leaves
277. Flower envelope made of narrow, bristle-like flowers
269. Upper lip straight, standing up, and coiled into a narrow tube. Flower crown with tips
292. Capsules with one compartment, flower 4-parted, mostly regular, gland at the base of the fruit
271. One sharp tooth on each side of the lower lip
293. Capsules with one compartment, flower mask-like, gland at the embryo
272. Two teeth on the lower lip
285. Capsules with two compartments, flower mask-like, colored flower crown
273. Lower lip with a downward-curled edge on the sides, stamens bent sideways after flowering
287. Capsules with two compartments, flower mask-like, tips on the lower pair of anthers
286. Capsules with two compartments, pressed on the sides. Flower mask-like
281. Outer lip toothed, edge of throat curled downward
288. Capsules with two compartments, flower mask-like, two thick seeds
280. Flower crown with 10 stripes, upper lip vaulted
297. Capsules with one compartment, flower bell-shaped, regular, many seeds
279. Flower crown with 10 stripes, upper lip straight
291. Capsules with two compartments, flower inverted. A small growth inside between the lobes of the lower lip
282. Flower crown closed with a lid after the flower falls
265. Flower throat closed with hairs
284. Capsules with two compartments, bell-shaped, bottom bulging, stamens bent
290. Capsules with two compartments, mask-like flower, with spur or tube at the base
289. Capsules with two compartments, mask-like flower, seeds covered with a skin
219. Bell-shaped flower on fruit, berry with two compartments, one seed
YBa. With a short pod:
a. With a uniform edge: 388, 383, 391, 385
b. With a notch at the tip: 389, 384, 386, 387, 390
YBb. With a long pod:
a. With a split flower crown: 379, 371, 372, 375, 373, 374, 376
b. With converging leaves of the flower crown: 382, 380, 381, 377, 378, 370
388. Flat pod pieces, stigma without style
390. Reverse heart-shaped pods. Back of the pod pieces sharp-edged
383. Flat pod pieces, long style
379. Pod with joints
391. Half egg-shaped pod pieces, short style
371. Square pod
372. Two glands on the sides of the embryo
385. Hemispherical pod pieces, persistent glands
375. Four glands inside the leaves of the flower crown
389. The two outward-facing flowers are larger than the others
373. Two glands inside the short stamens, with glands outside the longer stamens
384. Partly stamens under inward with a tooth
386. Heart-shaped pods, pod pieces with blunt back
374. Flower standing straight up
387. Heart-shaped pods, pod pieces with sharp-edged back
376. Pod pieces that roll up when they open
382. Pod spherical, like a dry berry, descending without opening. Four stamens at the tip, two-lobed
377. Pod pieces that roll up when they spring out
378. Leaves of the flower crown spread horizontally. Style large and wide
380. Sickle-shaped pod, one seed
370. Flat and straight pod piece. Widely splitting flower crown
381. Round pod, sharp-humped
XAa. With ten stamens: 352
XAb. With many stamens: 353, 354
352. Capsules with a beak and five seeds
353. Outer flower crown with three petals
354. Outer flower crown with nine parts
XBa. With six stamens: 368
XBb. With eight stamens: 418
XBc. With ten stamens:
a. All ten threads fused: 417, 416, 415, 414
b. Hairy stigma: 404, 403, 405, 406
c. Pod with two compartments: 408, 409
d. Pod with one seed: 413
e. Pod with joints: 411, 412
f. Pod with one compartment, without the other features of a-e: 407, 410
368. Flower crown with 2 petals, flower with lips, two broad stamens, each with three anthers
417. Stamens fused at the embryo, stigma sideways on the style, hairy
418. Flower crown with 5 petals, two of them winged, colored, heart-shaped pod with two compartments
416. Ship-like pod protruding from the embryo, stigma concealed
415. Pod enclosed in the swollen flower crown
414. Pod skewed, square-shaped, striped banner
404. Style narrow and round, hairy on top
403. Style hairy on top with a groove
405. Style hairy on top, flat
406. Style hairy on the underside
408. Fully separated two compartments
413. Flower in a knob, pod barely longer than the flower crown
411. Straight pod with flesh between the seeds
412. Spiral-twisted pod, seed pushed out of the embryo
407. Flower crown 5 parts, mostly regular, with the flower the same size
410. Long round pod filled with long seeds
409. Half-separated compartments
XC. 393. Flower head 5th. Flower 5-petaled 1. 3. 5. Stamen paths, capsules with compartments.
XDa. With composite flower. Polygamy.
aa. With only fertile hermaphrodites. P. æqualis.
a. Only curved flowers. 150, 148, 138, 140, 144, 141, 139, 146, 143, 142, 145, 149, 147.
b. Bud-shaped flowers. 156, 154, 151, 153, 155, 152.
c. Flat-blooming flowers. 161, 162, 179.
ab. With fertile hermaphrodites and fertile female flowers. P. superflua.
a. Flat-blooming flowers. 164, 163, 159.
b. Star-shaped flowers. 173, 175, 172, 167, 166, 158, 169, 171, 168, 165, 176, 177.
ac. With intermixed asexual flowers. P. frustranea. 157, 178.
ad. With infertile hermaphrodites and fertile female flowers. P. necessaria. 160, 170, 174.
XDb. With single fructifications. Monogamy. 226, 227, 398, 369.
150. Leaves in the fruit base. Five teeth on the seed. Flower head with addition.
148. Blue-green soil. Feathered hair crown. Flower head like roof tiles.
138. Naked soil. Feathered hair crown. Flower head of a single row of scales.
140. Naked soil. Feathered hair crown. Flower head with base.
144. Naked soil. Feathered hair crown. Flower head like roof tiles made of loose scales.
141. Naked soil. Feathered hair crown. Flower head like roof tiles, thickened at the bottom.
139. Naked soil. Feathered hair crown. Flower head like roof tiles, scales at the edge membranous.
146. Naked soil. Crown with simple hairs. Flower head with sloping base.
143. Naked soil. Simple hairs. Flower head with base. Only about five flowers.
142. Naked soil. Simple hairs. Flower head like roof tiles, cylindrical.
145. Naked soil. Simple hairs. Flower head like roof tiles, oval.
149. Naked soil. Crown 0. Flower head with base.
147. Naked soil. Crown of a particular type with little hair. Flower head uniform.
156. Flower head star-shaped, with colored rays.
154. Flower head surrounded by leaves.
151. Scales of the flower head at their tips hook-shaped and bent.
153. Flower head bulging with spiny leaves. Soil hairy.
155. Flower head bulging with spiny leaves. Soil bare, net-like.
152. Flower head like roof tiles, made of sharp unarmed scales.
161. Bare soil. Simple hairs. Flower head like roof tiles, short style.
160. Bare soil. Feathered hair crown. Long style.
179. Leafy soil. Crown made of stiff tips.
164. Mostly bare soil. Crown 0. In the surrounding circle, some fructifications without flowers.
163. Bare soil. Crown made of a rim. Flowers in the surrounding circle 3.
159. Bare soil. Feathered hair crown. Flower head colored from hollow leaves.
173. Bare soil. Crown 0. Flower head simple, made of uniform scales.
175. Bare soil. Crown 0. Flower head like roof tiles, made of sharp scales.
172. Bare soil. Crown 0. Flower head inward made of membranous scales.
167. Bare soil. Simple hairs. Stamen threads in flat flowers without anthers.
166. Bare soil. Simple hairs. Anthers below with 2 hairs.
158. Bare soil. Simple hairs. Very narrow flowers in the surrounding circle.
169. Bare soil. Simple hairs. Flowers in the surrounding circle few with gaps.
171. Bare soil. Simple hairs. Scales of the flower head at the tips like scorched.
165. Bare soil. Simple hairs. Flower head made of split, rough scales.
176. Leafy soil. Crown 0. Flower head hemispherical.
177. Leafy soil. Crown 0. Few broad, short-curved flowers.
157. Hairy soil. Simple hairs on the crown. In the surrounding circle, tube-shaped asexual flowers.
178. Leafy soil. Crown made of tips. Flower head with base.
160. Bare soil. Simple hairs. Female flowers between the scales of the flower head.
170. Naked soil. Simple hairs. Flower head made of a single row of scales.
174. Naked soil. Crown 0. Membranous seed.
398. Flower head five-petaled. Flower five-petaled, irregular. Capsule made of 3 shell pieces.
226. Common flower head. Flower 5-petaled regular on the fruit. Capsules 2 compartments.
369. Flower head two-petaled. Flower five-petaled, irregular. Capsules made of 5 shell pieces.
227. Flower head with 5 teeth. Flower petaled irregular on the fruit. Capsules 2 compartments.
XEa. With two stamen threads. 91, 92, 93, 94, 95.
XLb. With many stamen threads. 82, 81, 78.
91. Spur-shaped sap cavity.
92. Rounded, bubble-shaped sap cavity.
81. Like 82. Stamen threads above in the inflorescence, over the embryos.
93. Egg-shaped sap cavity.
94. Egg-shaped, bulging sap cavity.
78. Leaf hollowed out into a flower envelope. Stamen threads paired and embryos alternating around each other.
95. Sap cavity with inflated sac.
82. Inflorescence with flowers from a floral envelope. No distinct flower. Stamen threads and embryos interspersed.
ABAa. With one stamen thread. 115.
ABAb. With two stamen threads. 117.
ABAc. With three stamen threads. 68, 69, 79.
ABAd. With four stamen threads. 110, 107.
ABAe. With five stamen threads. 109, 129.
ABAf. With many stamen threads. 74, 120, 119, 104, 102, 103, 106.
ABAg. With fused stamen threads. 96.
ABAh. With fused stamen threads and sacs. 228.
115. Male flower naked. Female flower with one leaf, four naked seeds.
117. Male flower with one petal, flower 0. Female flower with one petal, flower 0. One stamen thread, capsules with one compartment.
68. Male grass-like flowers in catkins. Female flower like male, one seed in a sac.
69. Male flower with three petals. Female flower with three petals, two stamen threads, nut-like fruit with 2 compartments.
79. Male flower with three petals. Female flower hair-thin. One stamen thread, one seed with hair.
110. Male flower with four petals, cup-shaped, adjacent part. Female flower with two petals, stigma bristle-like, one seed.
107. Male flower in clusters of three. Flower with four parts. Female flower with two flowers close together. Two stamen threads, one seed.
109. Male communal flower with five parts, fused threads. Female flower naked. Two stamen threads, nut with two compartments.
129. Male flower with five petals, stamen threads 3-5. Female flower with five petals, three stamen threads, capsule split transversely.
74. Male floral envelope with three petals. Female floral envelope with three petals, many seeds, up to 100.
120. Male flower with four petals, eight stamen threads. Female flower with four petals, four stamen threads, four seeds.
119. Male flower with about 7 petals, stamen threads about 18. Female flower with about 7 petals, one seed.
104. Male floral envelope 5th, stamen threads about 12. Female flower with four parts, three stamen threads, capsules with two seeds.
102. Male flower with five parts, stamen threads about 10. Female flower with unparted structure, five stamen threads leathery, nut-like.
106. Male flower in catkins, stamen threads about 10. Female flower with six parts, two stamen threads, unadorned nut.
103. Male flower in five-part catkins, stamen threads 8. Female flower with two petals, two stamen threads, unadorned nut.
228. Male floral envelope with five teeth. Flower with five parts, three stamen threads. Female flower like male, stamen threads with three parts, berry.
96. Male flower with four petals, many stamen threads. Female cone with two stamen threads, two winged seeds.
ABBa. With two stamen threads. 100.
ABBb. With three stamen threads. 99.
ABBc. With four stamen threads. 133, 134, 108.
ABBd. With five stamen threads. 111.
ABBe. With eight stamen threads. 101, 348.
ABBf. With nine stamen threads. 131, 76.
ABBg. With fused threads. 98, 97.
100. Male catkins with 2-5 stamen threads. Female catkins with two stamen threads, capsules from two shell pieces. Seeds hairy.
111. Male flower with five petals. Female flower with one petal, two stamen threads, nut.
101. Male catkins, adjacent part. Stamen threads 8-16. Female catkins, stigma divided into four parts, capsules with two shell pieces, seeds hairy.
99. Male floral envelope with three parts, three-petaled flower. Female flower like male with nine stamen threads, berry with nine seeds.
348. Male floral envelope with four parts, four-petaled flower. Female floral envelope with four parts, four stamen threads, capsules with many seeds.
133. Male flower with two petals. Female flower with two petals, berry with one seed.
131. Male flower with three petals. Female flower with three petals, two stamen threads, capsules with two seeds.
134. Male flower with four parts. Female flower with four petals on the fruit, berry with one seed.
76. Male floral envelope with three petals, three-petaled flower. Female flower like male on the fruit, six stamen threads, capsules with six compartments.
108. Male catkins. Female catkins with two stamen threads, berry with one seed.
98. Male catkins with three stamen threads. Female floral envelope with three parts, three-petaled flower. Three stamen threads, berry from the floral envelope with three seeds.
97. Male flower with four petals, stamen threads about eight. Female flower with four petals, berry with one seed, half covered.
ABCa. On a single stem. 48, 401, 124, 128.
ABCb. On two stems. 322.
48. Grass. Hermaphrodite flowers and male flowers in an ear.
401. Hermaphrodite flower with five-parted flower cover, five petals, eight stamens. Two pollen tubes, capsules with wings, two seeds.
124. Hermaphrodite flower with four-parted flower cover, four stamens, one seed. Female flower like the hermaphrodite.
128. Hermaphrodite flower with five petals, five stamens. Pollen tubes bifurcated. One seed.
Female flower with two-leafed pollen tubes, simple. One seed.
322. Hermaphrodite naked flower.
Two stamens, one seed.
Female flower like the hermaphrodite.
Ba. Ferns.
a. Fruit production on their own stems. 34, 35, 36.
b. Fruit production on the underside of the leaves. 37, 40, 38, 39.
c. Fruit production at the root. 33, 32.
Bb. Mosses.
a. Without cap. 31, 30, 29.
b. With cap. Two types of fruit production. 27, 26, 25.
c. With cap. Only one type of fruit production. 24, 23, 28, 22.
Bc. Algae.
a. Terrestrial plants. 10, 11, 9, 8, 7, 1.
b. Aquatic plants. 6, 4, 5, 2, 3, 112.
Bd. Fungi.
a. Cap fungi. 21, 20, 19, 18.
b. Without cap. 17, 16, 14, 15, 13, 12.
34. Fruit production in an ear, consisting of shell pieces covered with a plate.
35. Ear with joints.
Fruit production split transversely.
36. Grapelike. Fruit production, each consisting of two shell pieces.
37. A spot covering the entire surface of the leaf.
40. Freestanding, separate points.
38. Parallel lines, in all directions.
39. Lines around the circumference, only on the edge.
33. Fruit with four chambers.
32. Fruit with two chambers.
31. Stamens from two shell pieces without a stalk.
30. Capsule with a flat opening.
29. Opening of the capsule covered with hair.
27. Capsule with an appendage.
26. Capsule with a small bordered appendage.
25. Capsule without protrusion.
24. Capsule with a stalk, from the ends of the stem or branches, with a knot at the bottom.
23. Capsule with a stalk from the sides of the stem, with leaves at the bottom.
28. Capsule without a stalk, surrounded by overlapping leaves.
22. Capsule with a stalk, membranous on one side.
10. Flower in ray-like sections, under a shield-shaped common cover.
11. Flower from a sphere with four shell pieces.
9. Bottle-shaped, hollow fruit production.
8. Fruit production from naked grains on the leaf.
7. Fruit production from a smooth, shiny shield.
1. Powdery hairs.
6. Gelatinous substance.
4. Membranous substance.
5. Leathery substance.
2. Straight, hairless threads.
3. Felt-like substance.
112. Round, corroded stem.
21. Leaves on the underside of the cap.
20. Holes on the underside of the cap.
19. Spines on the underside of the cap.
18. Nothing on the underside of the cap, surface net-like.
17. Gridded body.
16. Irregularly upturned, and pointed fungus.
14. Bell-shaped body.
15. Rod-shaped body.
13. Spherical body.
12. Bladder-like filled body.
§. 154.
Mr. Ludwig's method according to the flower and gender parts simultaneously.
A. Covered Flowers. Involuti,
B. Naked Flowers. Nudi,
AA. Hermaphrodite. Perfecti.
AB. With separated sexes. Relativi.
AAA. With flowers..
AAB. Without flowers. Apetali,
Z. With single-petaled flowers,
Y. With multi-petaled flowers.
ZA. With individual fructifications,
ZB. With compound flowers
Class
ZAA. With regular flowers. —1ZAB. With irregular flowers. —2
ZBA. With tubular flowers. —3
ZBB. With twisted flowers. —4
ZBC. With both tubular and twisted flowers simultaneously. —5
YA. With two-petaled flowers. —6
YB. With three-petaled flowers. —7
YC. With four-petaled flowers.
YCA. Regular —8
YCB. Irregular —9
YD. With five-petaled flowers.
YDA. Regular —10
YDB. Irregular —11
YDC. In umbels. —12
YE. With six-petaled flowers. —13
YF. With multi-petaled flowers. —14
AAB. Without flowers. —15
ABA. With partially separated sexes. R. Monophyti. —16
ABB. With fully separated sexes. R. Diphyti. —17
B. Naked Flowers. —18
Notes.
This designation is really only suitable for the few herbs with flower types that carry stamens. The remaining and largest part of the class consists of the Cryptantheræ, and this reminder can be enough for a beginner.
To AAB. Here, the fluctuating concepts of calyx and corolla can hinder a beginner.
To AB. Since the male and female flowers of a species are often very dissimilar to one another, it would be necessary to arrange such species, especially the Diphytas, not only by one but by both types of flowers.
Otherwise, this method is easy and convenient for a beginner due to the many sub-divisions and the many opposing relative terms.
Execution of this method.
1st Class.
a. With two stamens. 321.
b. With four stamens.
ba. With one pollen path.
baa. With naked seed. 213.214.
bab. With capsule.
baba. With one compartment. 309.
babb. With two compartments 317. 318. 219
bb. With two pollen paths. 319.
bc. With four pollen paths. 320.
c. With five stamens.
ca. With one pollen path.
caa. With naked seed 253-259.
cab. With capsule.
cabb. With one compartment. 306-308. 311. 312. 314. 315.324.
cabb. With two compartments 302.
cabc. With three compartments 225. 226. 299. 300. 313.
cabd. With five compartments. 328.
cac. With berry. 303.
cb. With two pollen paths. 304.305.
cc. With three pollen paths. 215.216.
d. With six stamens. 90.
e. With seven stamens. 310.
f. With eight stamens,
fa. With one pollen path. 136.123.
fb. With four pollen paths. 316.
g. With ten stamens.
ga. With one pollen path. 327. 324.
gb. With five pollen paths. 381.
h. With many stamens.
ha. With one pollen path 353.354.
hb. With three pollen paths. 132.
2nd Class.
a. With two stamens.
aa. With naked seed. 268. 263.
ab. With capsule. 294.295.283.
b. With three stamens.
ba. With one pollen path.
baa. With naked seed. 183.
bab. With capsule. 83.
bb. With three pollen paths. 296.
c. With four stamens.
ca. With naked seed. 262. 264-267.269-282.
cb. With capsule.
eba. With one compartment. 292. 293. 297.
cbb. With two compartments. 285-291.
d. With five stamens.
da. With naked seed. 260. 261.
db. With capsule. 227. 298. 301.
dc. With berry. 218.
3rd Class.
a. With free-standing anthers. 181. 184.
b. With fused anthers.
ba. With a naked ovary.
baa. With naked seed. 160. 163. 164.
bab. With crowned seed. 161.162.168.155.159.
bb. With fused ovary. 151-153.
4th Class.
a. With naked ovary.
aa. With two types of seeds, naked and crowned. 147.149.
ab. With crowned seed. 138-146.
b. With fused ovary. 148.150.
5th Class.
a. With naked ovary.
aa. With naked seed. 173-175.
ab. With crowned seed. 165-167.169-171.
b. With fused ovary.
ba. With naked seed. 177.
bb. With crowned seed. 178.179.157.
6th Class.
a. With one stamen. 114
b. With two stamens. 220.
7th Class.
a. With six stamens,
aa. With three pollen paths. 72.
ab. With many pollen paths. 73.
b. With many stamens.
ba. With one pollen path. 418.
bb. With six pollen paths. 75.77.
8th Class.
a. With four stamens.
aa. With one pollen path.
aaa. With capsule. 252.
aab. With berry. 221.
ab. With four pollen paths. 121.
b. With six stamens. 370-391.
c. With eight stamens.
ca. With one pollen path. 249.331.
cb. With four pollen paths. 345.394.
d. With many stamens.
da. With one pollen path.
daa. With capsule. 366. 367.
dab. With berry. 365.
db. With many pollen paths. 241. 355.
9th Class.
a. With five stamens. 369.
b. With six stamens. 368.
e. With ten stamens.
ca. With four petals, 403-417.
cb. With five petals. 416.
10th Class.
a. With five stamens.
aa. With one stamen path,
aaa. With capsule. 396.
aab. With berry. 235, 217, 400.
ab. With two stamen paths. 234.
ac. With five stamen paths. 182, 350, 338.
ad. With many stamen paths. 243.
b. With eight stamens. 401.
c. With ten stamens.
ca. With one stamen path. 326.
cb. With two stamen paths. 336, 337, 223.
cc. With three stamen paths. 332, 333.
cd. With five stamen paths. 341, 334, 335, 351.
d. With many stamens,
da. With one stamen path,
daa. With capsule. 402, 392.
dab. With berry. 229.
db. With two stamen paths. 233, 248.
dc. With three stamen paths. 393.
dd. With five stamen paths. 346, 230, 236.
de. With many stamen paths. 358-360, 236-240, 242.
11th Class.
a. With five stamens. 398.
b. With ten stamens. 329, 352.
c. With many stamens. 363.
12th Class.
185-211.
13th Class.
a. With two stamens. 91-95.
b. With six stamens.
ba. With capsule. 251, 84-86, 89.
bb. With berry. 88, 399.
c. With many stamens.
ca. With three stamen paths. 397, 364.
cb. With many stamen paths. 356.
14th Class.
a. With one stamen path. 395.
b. With five stamen paths. 362.
c. With many stamen paths. 356, 357.
15th Class.
a. With four stamens. 244, 124.
b. With five stamens.
ba. With one stamen path. 135, 127.
bb. With two stamen paths. 125, 126, 128, 105.
c. With six stamens.
ca. With one stamen path. 80.
cb. With three stamen paths. 123.
d. With eight stamens.
da. With two stamen paths. 222.
db. With three stamen paths. 122.
e. With ten stamens. 130.
f. With twelve stamens. 137.
g. With many stamens. 81, 82.
15th Class.
Appendix. Grass-like.
a. With two stamens. 56.
b. With three stamens.
ba. With one stamen path. 55.
bb. With two stamen paths. 41-54, 56-63.
Appendix. Grass-like plants. 64-69.
16th Class.
a. With one-petaled flower. 228.
b. With three-petaled flower. 47.
c. Without flower.
ca. With three stamens. 68.
cb. With four stamens. 107, 110, 134.
cc. With five stamens. 129.
cd. With many stamens. 96, 102-104, 106, 119, 120.
d. With naked flower. 115.
17th Class.
a. With three-petaled flower. 76, 99.
b. Without flower.
ba. With three stamens. 98, 100.
bb. With four stamens. 108, 133.
bc. With five stamens. 111.
bd. With multiple six stamens. 97, 101, 131.
18th Class.
a. With stamens without cover. 112, 113, 116.
b. 34-40.
c. 22-31.
d. 12-21.
e. Doubtful plants.
§. 155.
Mr. Gleditsch's Method, on the Position of the Stamens.
A. With visible stamens.
B. With hidden stamens.
AA. With the stamens from the base of the fruit.
AB. With the stamens from the flower.
AC. With the stamens from the flower cover.
AD. With the stamens from the stamen path.
AAA - AAK. With one to ten stamens.
AAL. With twelve stamens.
AAM. With many stamens.
AAN. With fused stamens.
AAO. With fused anthers.
ABA - ABK. With one to ten stamens.
ABL. With twelve stamens.
ABM. With many stamens.
ABN. With fused stamens.
ABO. With fused anthers.
ACA - ACH. With four, five, six, eight, ten, twelve, many, or fused stamens.
ADA - ADF. With two, three, four, six, twelve, or many stamens.
BA. Ferns.
BB. Mosses.
BC. Unusually shaped.
BD. Sponges.
Execution of this Method.
AAA. 112-115, 118.AABa. With regular or common flowers.
aa. With the flower around the fruit. 117, 322.
ab. With the flower on the fruit. 220.
b. With grass flowers. 56.
c. With flowers in catkins. 100.
AACa. With common flowers. 99.
b. With grass flowers.
ba. With simple covering without flowers. 64-69, 79.
z. bb. With real grass flowers, with flower and flower cover.
za. With many-petaled cover. 42, 43.
zb. With three-petaled cover. 46.
zc. With two-petaled cover.
zca. With one flower. 47, 49, 50, 53, 57, 58.
zcb. With two flowers. 48, 51, 62.
zcc. With many flowers. 42, 45, 52, 54, 59-61, 63.
zd. With one-petaled cover. 41.
AADa. With common simple flowers.
aa. With four petals.
aaa. With the flower around the fruit. 344, 347, 121.
aab. With the flower on the fruit. 221, 252.
ab. Without flower. 133, 110, 124, 116.
b. With flowers in catkins. 107, 108.
AAEa. With common simple flowers.
aa. With five petals.
aaa. With one-petaled flower cover. 400, 330, 217, 396, 338.
aab. With five-petaled flower cover. 343, 350, 359.
ab. With one-petaled flower. 328.
ac. Without flower. 105, 126, 128, 129.
b. With flowers in umbels.
ba. With simple umbels. 185, 186.
bb. With compound umbels.
bba. With both types of cover. 187, 188, 191-199, 204.
bbb. With only one type of cover. 200, 205-207, 189, 194.
bbc. Without any cover. 208-211.
c. With flowers in catkins. 111.
AAFa. With six petals. 399.
b. With four petals. 370-391.
c. With three petals. 123, 73, 72.
d. With simple flower.
da. Within a flower cover. 89.
db. Without flower cover. 84-88.90.
dc. With uncolored flower. 70, 71.
e. With collected flowers on a naked spike. 80.
AAG. Vacant.
AAHa. With the flower around the fruit. 401, 327.
b. With the flower on the fruit. 323.
AAI. 131, 75, 76.
AAKa. With five-petaled flower.
aa. With one capsule.
aaa. With single-petaled flower cover. 223, 326, 329, 332-337, 351.
aab. With five-petaled flower cover. 339-342.
ab. With many capsules. 346.
b. Without flower. 222.
AALa. With flower and flower cover. 132, 349, 397.
b. With simple flower. 137.
AAMa. With individual flower.
aa. With flower and flower cover.
aaa. With three-petaled flower. 74.
aab. With four-petaled flower. 365-367.
aac. With five-petaled flower. 392, 402, 358.
aad. With many-petaled flower. 357, 395.
ab. With simple flower. 1.
aba. With colored flower. 360-364, 355, 356.
abb. With uncolored flower. 119.
b. With flowers in catkins. 101-104, 106.
c. With flowers on a flower stem. 78, 81, 82.
AANa. With simple flower with mouth-shaped opening. 368, 418.
b. With pea flowers.
ba. With all ten filaments together.
baa. With smooth stigma. 414-416.
bab. With hairy stigma. 417.
bb. With a free-standing filament.
bba. With hairy stigma. 403, 404.
bbb. With smooth stigma.
bbba. With capsule with one compartment. 410-413.
bbbb. With capsule with two compartments. 408.
bbbc. With capsule with joints. 412.
c. With regular flower. 399, 352.
d. With flowers in catkins. 96-98.
AAO. 369, 398.
ABBa. With single-petaled regular flower. 321.
b. With single-petaled irregular flower.
ba. With capsule. 283, 294, 295.
bb. With naked seed. 263, 268.
ABCa. With the flower on the fruit. 83, 183.
b. With the flower around the fruit. 296.
ABDa. With united flowers. 180, 181, 184.
b. With individual flowers.
ba. With regular flower.
baa. With two connected seeds. 212-214.
bab. With individual fruits. 309, 317, 318, 320.
bb. With irregular flower.
bba. With covered seed.
bbaa. With the flower on the fruit. 219.
bbab. With the flower around the fruit. 284-293.
bbb. With naked seed. 262, 264-267, 269-282.
ABEa. With united flowers. 182, 109.
b. With individual flowers.
ba. With flowers and flower cover.
baa. With four naked seeds. 253-261.
bab. With two connected fruits. 304.
bac. With individual fruits.
baca. With the flower on the fruit. 224, 225, 215, 216, 218.
baeb. With the flower around the fruit.
bacba. With capsule. 298-302, 305-308, 311, 313-315, 319.
bacbb. With berry. 303, 235.
ABF. 88, 90.
ABG. 310.
ABH. 316.
ABI. Vacant.
ABK. 324, 325.
ABL. Vacant.
ABM. Vacant.
ABN. 353, 354.
ABOa. With capsule. 226, 227.
y. b. With naked seed. Compound flowers.
ya. With flowers of one kind only.
yaa. With twisted flowers. 138-150.
yab. With tubular flowers. 151-156, 161, 162, 179.
yb. With flowers of different kinds.
yba. With only tubular flowers. 160, 163, 164.
ybb. With star-shaped flowers. 157, 165-178.
ACA. 134, 244, 245.
ACBa. With flower and flower cover. 234, 243.
b. With simple flower. 312, 135.
ACC. 251.
ACDa. With flower and flower cover. 249.
b. With simple flower. 136.
ACE. 130.
ACF. 248, 250.
ACGa. With the flower on the fruit. 230-233.
b. With the flower around the fruit. 229, 236-242.
ACH. 228.
ADA. 91-95.
BAa. With fruiting in catkins. 34.
b. With fruit in ears. 35.
c. With fruit on leaves.
ca. Without ring around the pollen grains. 40.
cb. With an elastic ring around the pollen grains. 36-39.
d. With fruit at the root. 32, 33.
BBa. Without a cap. 30, 31.
b. With a cap. 22-29.
c. Moss-like. 8-11.
BCa. Scaly. 6-8.
b. With bladders. 4, 5.
c. Fleshy. 2, 3.
BDa. With fruiting on a smooth surface. 1, 15, 16.
b. With fruit in a container. 18-21.
c. With fruit under a stretched skin. 14.
d. With fruit inside the body. 12, 13, 17.
§. 156.
Cæsalpinus' Method.
A. Trees and Shrubs.B. Herbs and Perennials.
AA. With the germ from the tip of the seed.
AB. With the germ from the base of the seed.
BA. With seed.
BB. Without seed.
Z. BAA. From simple ovaries.
Y. BAB. From double ovaries.
X. BAC. From triple ovaries.
BAD. From four ovaries.
U. BAE. From multiple ovaries.
ZA. With a single naked seed.
ZB. With a single fleshy fruit.
ZC. With a single capsule with one chamber.
YA. With naked seeds.
YB. With double seed coats.
XA. With a bulb at the root.
XB. Without a bulb.
UA. With two naked seeds.
UB. With seed coat.
UAA. Each seed with its own flower sitting on it, which forms part of the composite flower.
UAB. With a common flower surrounding the fruit body.
§. 157.
Morison's Classification of Plants.
A. Trees.B. Shrubs.
C. Perennials.
D. Herbs.
DA. Climbing.
DB. With legume fruit.
DC. With capsule fruit.
DD. With three capsules.
DE. With several capsules in a certain number, each class to be named.
DF. With composite flower and naked seeds.
DG. With composite flower, milky-producing, and others with crowned seeds.
DH. Grass-like or grasses.
DI. With flowers in umbels.
DK. With three seeds in as many chambers.
DL. With flowers in whorls or otherwise with flowers with mouth-like openings.
DM. With many capsules and pods.
DN. With berries.
DO. Ferns.
DP. Unclassified, as they do not fit into any of the previous classes, making a miscellaneous class of their own.
Reminder.
One should not view this classification as a method made with the intention of placing these divisions into a chain-like connection with one another, just as little as such a linkage is sought in the Linnaean natural orders or the Adansonian families. Morison clearly did not intend to create what we now call a "method," but rather to identify natural classes without regard to their relationships to each other—naturally, classes that were devised and defined with only moderate success based on the still crude and unrefined concepts of the time.
§. 158.
Johann Ray's Method.
A. Herbs, plants without buds. B. Trees, plants with buds.AA. Imperfect herbs, without stamens. 1-40.
AB. Perfect, with stamens.
Z.ABA. Two-leafed germination.
T.ABB. Pointed germination.
ABC. Unclassified.
ZA. Without flower.
ZB. With composite flower.
138-1842
ZC. With individual flowers.
Y.ZCA. With naked seeds.
X. ZCB. With covered seeds.
YA. With one seed.
YB. With two seeds. 185-211. (212-214)
YC. With four seeds. 253-261. (262-282)
YD. With many seeds.
XA. With fleshy fruit.
XB. With membranous fruit.
XAA. With fruit-like fruit. 228
XAB. With berry.
XBA. With multiple fruit.
XBB. With single fruit.
UA. With one-leafed flower.
UB. With two or three-leafed flower.
UC. With four-leafed flower and pod. 370-391
UD. With four-leafed flower and capsule. 403-417
UE. With five-leafed flower.
TA. With flower.
TB. Without flower.
BA. Pointed germination.
BB. Two-leafed germination.
BBA. With separated sexes.
S. BBB. With hermaphroditic flowers.
SA. Fruit with a navel.
SB. Without a navel on the fruit.
SC. With dry fruit.
SD. With legume fruit.
Note.
Ray was particularly focused on natural classes, and he was quite successful with his method in this regard. Not only are the classes with numbers attached completely natural as they are, but even in other classes, which are not entirely natural in their entirety, there are still many subdivisions from natural families. He took into account the whole growth of the plants when considering their fruitification, and he derived many successful natural class names from this, such as:
Monocotyledons,
Dicotyledons,
Compofitæ,
Umbelliferæ,
Stellatæ,
Asperifoliæ,
Verticillatæ.
Moreover, it was unnecessary to develop this method, as Boerhaave’s method, with which it was done, is very similar to it.
§. 159.
Paul Hermann’s Method.
A. Herbs. B. Trees.AA. With flowers.
AB. Without flowers.
Z.AAA. With naked seeds.
Y. AAB. With covered seeds.
ZA. With individual seeds.
ZB. With two seeds together.
ZC. With four seeds.
ZD. With many seeds.
ZAA. With individual flowers.
ZAB. With composite flowers.
ZBA. With a single-petaled flower.
ZBB. With a five-petaled flower.
ZCA. With alternating leaves.
ZCB. With opposite leaves.
YA. With membranous dry covering.
YB. With fleshy fruit.
X.YAA. With individual fruits.
YAB. With many fruits from one flower.
XA. With a capsule.
XB. With a pod.
XC. With a husk.
XAA. With an onion-shaped root.
U.XAB. Without such a root.
UA-UE. With fruit with one, two, three, or four chambers.
YBA. With berries.
YBB. With fruit resembling an apple.
ABA. Without flowers.
ABB. With grass-like flowers.
ABC. Moss species.
BA. Trees with flowers in catkins.
BB. Trees with flowers.
BBA. Trees with fleshy fruit.
BBB. Trees with dry fruit.
§. 160.
Christoph Knaut’s Method.
A. Herbs.B. Plants with woody stems.
AA. With flowers, specifically true flowers in contrast to flower coverings.
AB. Without flowers.
Z.AAA. With simple or individual flowers.
Y. AAB. With composite flowers.
ZA. With covered fruit.
ZB. With naked fruit.
ZAA. With fleshy fruit.
X. ZAB. With dry membranous fruit.
XA. With simple fruit.
XB. With multiple fruits.
XAA - XAF. With single-petaled flowers, four-petaled regular, four-petaled irregular flowers, five-petaled, six-petaled, or many-petaled flowers.
YA. With seeds without a crown.
YB. With seeds with a hair crown.
BA. Trees.
BB. Herbs.
This method has only been used by the author himself in a catalog of herbs around Halle.
§. 161.
August Dvirin Rivinus’ Method.
A. Plants with perfect flowers, i.e., with flowers.B. Plants without flowers.
AA. With individual flowers.
AB. With composite flowers.
Z.AAA. With regular flowers.
T. AAB. With irregular flowers.
ZA-ZG. With one, two, three, four, five, six, or many-petaled flowers.
YA-YG. With one, two, three, four, five, six, or many-petaled flowers.
Note.
This method is an example of a strict arbitrary method, and its design is very simple and easy; however, it also categorizes herbs more than any other method and disrupts all relationships.
Bernhard Hinrich Rupp’s method differs from the Rivinus method in that the consideration of regularity and irregularity precedes the consideration of individual plants or the combination of several flowers.
§. 162.
Christian Knaut’s Method.
A. With single-petaled flowers.B. With multi-petaled flowers.
AA. With individual flowers.
AB. With united flowers.
AAA. With regular flowers.
AAB. With irregular flowers.
ABA. With regular flowers.
ABB. With irregular flowers.
ABC. With both regular and irregular flowers.
BA-BF. With two, three, four, five, six, or many-petaled flowers.
BAA. With regular flowers. Similarly, BB, BC, and so on.
AAB. With irregular flowers. Similarly, BB, BC, and so on.
Note.
This method has not been applied in any catalog, as its author based it on various peculiar and contradictory concepts. The essence of the flower, according to him, lies in the petal, which others view only as a covering for the more essential parts that define the sex of the flower. He also refers to the petal as what others call the calyx. Regarding the fruit, on which he bases his subcategories, he claims that no seed can be considered naked, and he includes the naturally attached and inseparable coverings, as well as the skins that every seed possesses, in his classification.
§. 163.
Mr. von Linné’s Method, based on the Flower Covering.
A. With a floral sheath.B. With grass-like flowers.
C. With scales in catkins.
D. With floral coverings.
E. With flower covers.
EA. With a common floral cover for many flowers.
EB. With a specific floral cover for individual flowers.
EBA. With a double floral cover.
Z. EBB. With a simple cover.
ZA. With a flower-bearing cover.
ZB. With the flower cover on the fruit.
ZC. With a separate cover around the fruit and flower.
Y. ZCA. With a flower cover containing flowers.
X. ZCB. Ambiguous flowers; i.e., flowers without covers or with covers without flowers.
ZCC. With different coverings on plants of the same species.
YA. With a divergent cover, whose shape and division do not match the flower.
YB. With a harmonizing cover, whose shape and division match the flower.
YBA. With a transient cover.
U. YBB. With a permanent cover.
UA. With a regular cover, with a single-petaled or multi-petaled flower.
UB. With an irregular cover, with a single-petaled or multi-petaled flower.
XA. With a flower without a cover.
XB. With a cover without a flower.
Reminder.
Already, Magnol in his book Character plantarum novus proposed a method based on the flower cover, but he uses the word calyx in a broader sense, which also includes the fruit case, which he calls the inner calyx. In his subcategories, he departs again from the flower cover and classifies based on the flower and fruit. Furthermore, this Magnolian method has not been implemented in any catalog, making the design of it unnecessary.
§. 164.
Mr. von Wachendorff's Method.
A. With obvious stamens.B. With fructifications without stamens.
AA. Two or more-leafed germination.
AB. Pointed germination.
Z.AAA. With hermaphroditic flowers.
Y.AAB. With separated sexes.
ZA. With flower and floral covering.
ZB. With a simple flower.
X. ZAA. With unconnected, singly standing flowers.
U. ZAB. With united flowers standing on a common base.
XA. With a ratio of the stamens to the flower.
XB. With a ratio of the stamens to themselves.
XC. With a ratio of the stamens to the anthers.
T. XAA. With a number of stamens equal to or more than the parts of the flower.
S. XAB. With a number of threads that bear no relation to the parts of the flower.
TA. With as many threads as parts of the flower.
TB. With more threads than parts of the flower.
R. TAA. With naked seeds.
Q. TAB. With covered seeds.
RA. With the flower on the fruit.
RB. With the flower around the fruit.
P. RAA. With two seeds.
RAB. With five seeds.
Pa. With two stamens.
Pb. With one stamen.
Paa. In umbels.
Pab. Umbel-like.
Pz. Paaa. Without an umbel covering.
Py. Paab. With covering around the small umbels.
Px. Paac. With coverings around both umbels.
Pya. With round fruit.
Pyb. With egg-shaped fruit.
Pyc. With long fruit.
QA. With similar floral covering, i.e., the covering and the flower have the same number of parts.
QB. With dissimilar floral covering.
QAA. With two-parted flower.
QAB. With three-parted flower.
QAC. With four-parted flower.
O. QAD. With five-parted flower.
Oa. With prominent stamens.
Ob. With indistinct stamens.
Oc. Without stamens.
Oz. Oaa. With one stamen.
Oab. With two stamens.
Oac. With three stamens.
Oad. With five stamens.
Oza. Fruit with one cavity.
Ozb. Fruit with two cavities.
Oze. Fruit with three cavities.
Ozd. Fruit with five cavities.
Ozaa. With one-leafed flower.
Ozab. With five-leafed flower.
Ozaaa. With the flower around the fruit.
Ozaab. With the flower on the fruit.
TBA. With twice as many threads as parts of the flower.
TBB. With three times as many threads.
TBC. With four times as many threads.
SA. With many threads, more than the number of parts in the flower.
SB. With few threads, fewer than this number.
XBA. With threads that have grown together into a tube.
XBB. With free threads, but unequal in length.
XBC. With threads in more than one group, and several sacs in each group.
YA. With half-separated sexes.
YB. With fully separated sexes.
N. YAA. With only flowers of one sex.
YAB. With mixed hermaphroditic flowers.
Na. With singly standing flowers.
Nb. With united flowers on a common base.
Naa. With flower and floral covering.
Nab. With a simple flower.
Nz. Naaa. With the flower standing away from the covering.
Naab. With the flower attached to the covering.
Nza. With the same type of flower for both sexes.
Nzb. With different flowers.
Nzaa. With three-leafed flower.
Nzab. With five-leafed flower.
Note.
This method is extremely complex, and it would be too extensive to explain all its subdivisions, as demonstrated with P, Q, and Y, since the mentioned examples are sufficient to illustrate the overall structure and course of the method. It can serve as a model of a strict arbitrary method; however, it can also serve as proof of how intolerable the demand would be if every founder of an arbitrary method required that the headings or names of their classes be memorized, and how completely unnecessary it is to assign names to the classes of such methods.
Tenth Section.
§. 165.
A part of the organic structure of plants can serve as the foundation for an arbitrary method, and such methods can be designed and executed with two primary purposes. First, to see how far the detailed examination of such a part might lead, and to discover the characteristics for determining the natural families that nature might have placed in such a part. Secondly, to serve as a guide for beginners when examining and deciphering unknown plants.Botanists might assign their students, who are eager to learn, the task of applying such methods in a well-equipped garden or plant-rich area. Well-thought-out and diligently executed methods would serve as registers over the book of nature, or a part of it, always providing the same benefits as various registers in an important and material-rich book. Furthermore, the public would have no reason to complain about costs if such methods were not presented as books by their authors, but rather as mere registers of a general catalog of the plant kingdom, such as Mr. Linnaeus's Species Plantarum, and organized in the most concise manner possible.
It would especially be desirable that, with the prejudice set aside that only the reproductive organs could and must serve as the foundation of methods, attempts be made with the different parts of the so-called appearance (habit), as these would certainly provide more useful insights for determining the true natural relationships between plants than is commonly believed. An attempt with the leaves is outlined here, but several more could be made with the inflorescence, the stem, and the substance and tissue of plant bodies. However, carrying out and comparing the plants with the plan of such a method requires much time, and no groundwork has yet been done.
When devising arbitrary methods for the use of beginners, one must consider their perspective to ensure comfort, and judge how much can reasonably be assumed, and how the parts that are suggested for their examination are typically present together or follow each other.
The foundations of all methods can also, to some extent, be combined into a general rule without being executed separately in the usual way through continued subdivisions, as §. 93 contains, where one who sets out to study a plant is guided through all considerations of the plants in question.
§. 166.
Method Based on the Flower Covers
A. Flowers without any covering.B. Flowers with covering.
BA. Many flowers connected together.
BB. Individual flowers without connection.
X. BAA. In a catkin.
U. BAB. Under small scales: Grass species.
T. BAC. In a flower sheath.
S. BAD. With a covering around the flower.
R. BAE. In an umbel.
Q. BAF. Within a common flower cover.
P. BBA. With an incomplete flower, namely a flower without a cover, or a flower that resembles a flower cover.
O. BBB. With a flower and flower cover, but the cover falls off easily.
Z. BBC. With a flower and flower cover that can be found together.
ZA. Flower on the fruit.
ZB. Flower out of the cover.
ZC. Flower around the fruit.
ZCA. Double flower cover.
Y. ZCB. Simple flower cover.
YA. Regular, with parts that are similarly shaped.
YB. Irregular, with parts that are dissimilar.
Note
For BB and U: All grass species must be searched under BAB, including those that only have one flower in the spike, and would otherwise be categorized under BB.
For BA and X through Q: There are more ways to connect multiple fructifications, and one could generally establish a method based solely on the flower structure and the way the plant blooms. However, it has been decided for now to limit this to these six types, and the other plants, whose flowers are connected in a way different from these six, must be searched under BB.
Execution
Aa. Absolutely without covering. 112, 113, 115, 116, 118, 316, 322.
Ab. Apparently without the same. 355, 365, 1.
Xa. The fruit is a cone. 96, 111.
Xb. A nut. 102, 103, 106, 108.
Xc. A berry. 97, 98.
Xd. A single capsule. 104.
Xe. Capsules in a catkin. 101, 100.
Xf. Naked seeds under scales. 107.
Ua. Flowers in catkins. 64-69.
Ub. Flowers in spikes. 41-63.
Ta. Flowers without further peculiar covering. 78, 81, 82, 116.
Tb. Peculiar three-leafed flower. 76, 77.
Tc. Peculiar six-parted flower. 80, 83, 89.
Sa. Four-parted flower. 221, 252.
Sb. Five-parted flower. 217, 314, 315, 356.
Ra. Simple umbel. 185, 186.
Rb. Compound umbel.
a. With both covers. 188, 191-197, 199, 201-204.
b. Only around the individual umbels. 194, 200, 205-207.
c. Without any cover. 190, 208-211.
Qa. Without peculiar flower cover.
aa. With naked base.
a. Simple parallel leaves. 138, 158, 168, 170.
b. With a base attachment. 143-146, 149.
c. Leaflets like roof tiles.
a. Bud-shaped flower. 151-157.
b. Flat flower. 139-141, 159-163, 165-167, 169, 171-175.
ab. With leaf-like base. 148, 150, 176-179.
ac. With hairy base. 153, 157, 164.
Qb. With peculiar flower cover. 180-182, 226.
Pa. Flower on the fruit.
a. One-leafed. 183.
b. Five-leafed.
c. Six-leafed irregular. 91-95.
Pb. Flower around the fruit or seed.
a. From two leaves or parts. 133, 220.
b. From three. 131, 137.
c. From four. 110, 120, 121, 134, 136, 124, 220, 355.
d. From five. 105, 122, 125-128, 130, 135, 235, 362-364.
e. From six. 70-72, 84-88, 90.
f. From eight. 244, 245.
g. From many parts. 356, 361.
Oa. Occasionally, the flower is missing. 348, 368.
Ob. The flower cover.
a. In a one-leafed flower. 295, 317.
b. In a two-leafed flower. 220.
c. In a four-leafed flower. 221, 249, 365-367, 370-391.
d. In a five-leafed flower. 357-359, 369.
ZAa. With naked seed. 180, 181, 183.
b. With covered seed. 215, 216, 219, 221, 225, 227, 249, 316, 317.
ZB. 229-252.
ZCAa. Special cover before the fruit, another before the flower. 119.
b. Attachment at the base. 313, 336.
c. Outer and inner. 353, 354.
YAa. Single-leafed Flower Cover
a. Two-parted. 305, 316.
b. Three-parted. 99.
c. Four-parted. 132, 283, 288, 293, 318, 319, 321.
d. Five-parted.
da. Naked seed. 153-282.
db. Covered seed.
dha. Single-leafed flower, irregular. 284-293, 301.
dbb. Single-leafed flower, regular. 298-300, 302, 324-402.
dbe. Multi-leafed flower. 323, 329-338, 350, 351, 393, 328.
e. Ten-parted. 279.
f. Twelve-parted. 250, 349.
YAb. Two-leafed. 123, 220, 295, 296, 366, 369.
YAc. Three-leafed. 72, 296.
YAd. Four-leafed. 327, 345, 365, 370-391, 394, 395.
YAe. Five-leafed.
a. Naked seed. 352, 358, 359.
b. Covered seed. 339-344, 392.
YAf. Six-leafed. 399.
YAg. Seven-leafed. 310.
YBa. Single-leafed Flower Cover
a. Naked seed. 261-282.
b. Capsule. 283-294, 297.
c. Pod. 403-417.
YBb. Three-leafed Flower Cover. 418.
YBc. Five-leafed Flower Cover. 392, 398.
YBd. Eight-leafed Flower Cover. 313.
§. 167.
Method Based on the Flower and its Relation to the Cover
A. Individual flowers.B. Flowers contained within a common flower cover.
AA. Flower and flower cover together.
AB. Flower without cover, or resembling a cover.
Z.AAA. Single-leafed flower.
Y.AAB. Multi-leafed flower.
ZA. Regular.
ZB. Irregular.
YA. Regular.
YB. Irregular.
ABA. Regular.
ABB. Irregular.
Note
This method applies only to plants that have flowers, i.e., fructifications with stamens, surrounded by a circular cover, i.e., flowers.
Execution
ZAa. Three-parted. 213.
ZAb. Four-parted.
a. Around the fruit. 283, 305, 309, 317-318, 327.
b. On the fruit. 212-214, 316, 323.
ZAc. Five-parted.
a. Around the fruit.
aa. Naked seed. 253-264.
ab. Covered seed. 296, 299, 300, 303-309, 321, 324-326, 328, 353-354.
b. On the fruit. 224, 225, 228.
ZBa. Naked seed. 261-282.
b. Covered seed. 227, 283-299, 301, 302, 368, 413.
YAa. Two-leafed flower. 123, 220.
b. Three-leafed flower. 73, 74, 76, 77, 99, 123.
c. Four-leafed flower. 221, 249, 344, 345, 347, 348, 365-367, 370-391, 394, 400.
d. Five-leafed flower. 182, 215-217, 223, 229-248, 329, 331-346, 350, 356-359, 392, 393, 396, 400-402.
e. Six-leafed flower. 350, 351, 399.
f. Seven-leafed flower. 310.
g. Eight-leafed flower. 247.
h. Twelve-leafed flower. 349, 357.
Multi-leafed flower. 361, 395.
YB. 132, 369, 397, 398, 403-418.
ABAa. Two-parted. 114, 117.
b. Three-parted. 131.
c. Four-parted. 90, 110, 121, 134, 136.
d. Five-parted. 105, 124-127, 129, 130, 135, 183, 185-211, 222, 235, 312.
e. Six-parted. 64, 70, 75, 80, 84-90, 356.
f. Eight-parted. 244, 245.
g. Multi-parted. 119.
ABBa. Five-leafed flower. 120, 362-364.
b. Six-leafed flower. 71, 72, 83, 91-95, B. 138-182, 226.
§. 168.
Method according to the guide for stamens and pollen tubes.
A. Flowers without coverage.B. Flowers in the form of catkins.
C. Flowers under grass-like scales.
D. Flowers.
DA. Hermaphroditic flowers.
DB. Flowers of different sexes on the same stem.
DC. Flowers of different sexes on different stems of the same species.
Execution.
Aa. Truly naked flowers: 112, 113, 115, 116, 118, 322.
b. Accidentally naked flowers: 355, 365.
Ba. Flowers of different sexes on the same stem.
a. Male flowers.
aa. Two stamens: 100.
ab. Three stamens: 228.
ac. Four stamens: 107.
ad. Five stamens: 109.
ae. Eight stamens: 103.
af. Ten stamens: 106.
ag. Many stamens: 96, 102, 104.
b. Female flowers.
ba. One pollen tube: 96, 102, 228.
bb. Two pollen tubes: 100, 103, 106, 107, 109, 128.
bc. Three pollen tubes: 104.
Bb. Flowers of different sexes on different stems.
a. Male flowers.
aa. Two stamens: 100.
ab. Three stamens: 98.
ac. Four stamens: 108, 133.
ad. Five stamens: 100, 111.
ae. Eight stamens: 101.
af. Many stamens: 97.
b. Female flowers.
ba. One pollen tube: 97, 133.
bb. Two pollen tubes: 100, 111.
be. Three pollen tubes: 98.
Ca. Two stamens: 56.
Cb. Three stamens.
a. One pollen tube: 64, 67.
b. Two pollen tubes: 41-47, 49-63.
Cc. Three stamens, with separate sexes.
a. One pollen tube: 68, 69, 79.
b. Two pollen tubes: 48.
DAa. One stamen: 114.
DAb. Two stamens: 220, 262, 263, 268, 283, 294, 295.
DAc. Three stamens.
a. One pollen tube: 83, 183.
b. Three pollen tubes: 296.
DAd. Four stamens.
a. One pollen tube: 180, 181, 212, 214, 219, 221, 244, 252, 262, 264-267, 269-282, 284-293, 297, 309, 317, 318.
b. Two pollen tubes: 245, 319.
c. Four pollen tubes: 320, 344, 347.
DAe. Five stamens.
a. One pollen tube: 135, 138-179, 217, 218, 224, 227, 234, 235, 253-261, 298-303, 306-315, 352, 369, 400.
b. Two pollen tubes: 105, 125-128, 185-211, 304, 305.
c. Three pollen tubes: 215, 216, 343.
d. Four pollen tubes: 396.
e. Five pollen tubes: 182, 243, 338, 350.
f. Many pollen tubes: 359.
DAf. Six stamens.
a. One pollen tube: 70, 80, 84-90, 251, 368, 370-391, 399.
b. Three pollen tubes: 71, 72, 123.
c. Many pollen tubes: 73.
DAg. Seven stamens: 311.
DAh. Eight stamens.
a. One pollen tube: 136, 249, 323, 327, 418.
b. Two pollen tubes: 401.
c. Three pollen tubes: 122.
d. Four pollen tubes: 394.
DAi. Nine stamens: 75.
DAk. Ten stamens.
a. One pollen tube: 324, 326, 329, 331, 352, 403-417.
b. Two pollen tubes: 130, 222, 223, 336, 337.
c. Three pollen tubes: 332, 333, 339, 340.
d. Five pollen tubes: 334, 335, 341, 342, 346, 351.
DAl. Twelve stamens.
a. One pollen tube: 137, 250.
b. Two pollen tubes: 248.
c. Four pollen tubes: 132, 397.
d. Twelve pollen tubes: 349.
DAm. Many stamens.
a. One pollen tube: 229, 365-367, 392, 395, 402.
b. Two pollen tubes: 232.
c. Three pollen tubes: 233, 363, 364, 393.
d. Five pollen tubes: 230, 231, 236, 262.
e. Many pollen tubes: 81, 82, 237-242, 246, 247, 353, 354.
DBa. Male flowers.
a. Four stamens: 110.
b. Five stamens: 128, 129, 228.
c. Eight stamens: 401.
d. Many stamens: 74, 119, 120.
DBb. Female flowers.
a. One pollen tube: 110, 119, 128, 228, 401.
b. Three pollen tubes: 128.
c. Four pollen tubes: 120.
d. Many pollen tubes: 74.
DCa. Male flowers.
a. Three stamens: 99.
b. Four stamens: 133, 134.
c. Five stamens: 111, 235.
d. Six stamens: 123.
e. Eight stamens: 348.
f. Nine stamens: 76, 131.
g. Many stamens: 237.
DCb. Female flowers.
a. One pollen tube: 133, 134, 235.
b. Two pollen tubes: 131.
c. Three pollen tubes: 123.
d. Four pollen tubes: 348.
e. Five pollen tubes: 111.
f. Six pollen tubes: 76.
g. Nine pollen tubes: 99.
h. Many pollen tubes: 237.
§. 169.
Method According to the Structure of the Fruit
A. Seeds without coveringB. Single capsules in one flower
C. Several capsules in one flower
D. Siliques (pods)
E. Legumes
F. Fleshy fruits
G. Cones
Execution
Aa. Seeds entirely without any covering
a. Single seed grains: 41–69, 78, 79, 113, 118, 122–128, 135, 138–184, 244, 245
b. Two seed grains: 185–212, 248
c. Four seed grains: 115, 116, 120, 121, 253–282
d. Many seed grains: 237–243, 246, 247–355, 359
Ab. Seeds partially enclosed by a skin or rind 254, 352, 355–361
Ba. Capsule with one chamber 70, 100, 101, 117, 292–297, 305–309, 312, 314, 315, 330–343, 367, 369, 392, 396–398
b. Capsule with two chambers 114, 131, 220, 222–224, 226, 227, 283–292, 298, 300–302, 317–319, 418
c. Capsule with three chambers 83–89, 132, 299, 313, 332, 333, 393
d. Capsule with four chambers 249, 327, 344–345
e. Capsule with five chambers 325, 326, 328, 329, 334, 351, 402, 404
f. Capsule with six chambers 76, 77
g. Capsule with ten chambers 310
h. Capsule with indeterminate number of chambers 225
Ca. Two capsules 304, 401
b. Three capsules 71, 73, 363, 364
c. Four capsules 347, 348
d. Five capsules 346, 362
e. Six capsules 72, 75, 346, 349
f. Indeterminate number of capsules 236, 353, 354, 360, 361
Da. Short siliques 368, 380–391
b. Long siliques 249, 366, 370–379
E. 403–418
Fa. Berry with one chamber 81, 82, 97–99, 133, 134, 136, 215–217, 231–235, 310, 321, 365, 399
b. Berry with two chambers 218, 303
c. Berry with three chambers 88, 90
d. Berry with four chambers 316, 320, 323, 394, 400
e. Berry with five chambers 316, 324, 400
f. Berry with six chambers 77
g. Berry with many chambers 395
Ga. Pome fruit (e.g., apples, pears) 228, 230, 231
b. Drupe (stone fruit) 105, 108, 221, 229
c. Nut 102, 103, 106
H. 96
§. 170.
Method for Plants with Flowers, Based on the Connection of the Fructification Parts to One Another
A. Free fruit, which is in no way connected with the floral envelopes, but has its base independently at the tip of the stalk.B. Semi-free fruit, such that it is doubtful whether the fruit arises solely from the tip of the stalk or also from the flower.
C. Adnate fruit, or fruit from the floral envelope, which is connected and fused with the ovary, so that the flower appears to sit on the fruit.
AA. With stamens entirely emerging from the base of the fruit
AB. With stamens partly from the fruit base, partly from the flower
AC. With stamens from a single-petaled flower
AD. With stamens and flower both arising from the floral envelope
BA. With stamens from a simple flower
BB. With stamens from a flower-bearing calyx
CA. With individual ovaries, each on its own fruit base, without connection to others
CB. With united ovaries from a shared base
Note
The ovary is the part and place of the plant where its seed is attached, grows, and ripens—whether this part is enclosed in a covering or shell, or left bare.
Of all the bases for arbitrary methods following the structure of the fruit organs, the observation of the position and connection of the fruiting organs seems the most natural and best at keeping the families of herbs together. It is rightly to Cesalpino’s credit that, as the inventor of the first botanical method, he began with such a fortunate idea.
The superiority of this basis becomes clear when we consider what happens inside a plant as it prepares for fructification: the entire organic body unfolds in its usual natural layers, and these layers make space for each other so that each can develop into a distinct major part of the fructification. Thus, in the various modifications they take on, the internal connection that they retain among one another remains the most important, preserving many traces of the original inner essential structure.
Execution.
Z. AAA. With free, separated, and spreading stamens.
Y. AAB. With stamens fused into a ring or sheath around the fruit, or at least placed closely together.
Za. With stamens and flower parts in equal number. 338. 341. 343. 344–359. 396. 398–400.
Zb. With twice as many stamens as flower parts. 326. 329. 331. 394.
Zc. With many stamens.
Zca. With single fruit. 365–367. 369. 370. 391. 392. 395. 397.
Zcb. With multiple fruits from one flower. 355–358. 360–364. 401.
Ya. With clearly fused stamens. 353–354. 403–418.
Yb. Less clearly fused or merely joined filaments.
Yba. In a flower with a single petal. 303. 323–328. 398.
Ybb. In a flower with multiple petals. 330. (350. 351?) 352.
ABa. With a single fruit. 332–337. 339. 342.
ABb. With multiple fruits. 346. 348. 349.
X. ACa. With enclosed fruit.
U. ACb. With naked seed.
Xa. With equal number of filaments in a regular flower.
Xaa. With seeds from the base.
Xaaa. With a capsule with one compartment. 306.
Xaab. With a capsule with two compartments. 318. 319.
Xab. With seeds on their own raised base in the capsule. 307–309. 311. 314. 315.
Xac. With seeds on the capsule's valve segments. 305.
Xad. With seeds on a small column in a capsule with many compartments. 298–301. 313.
Xae. With seeds in a berry. 303.
Xb. With unequal number of filaments in a bilabiate flower.
Xba. With one compartment in the capsule. 294. 295.
Xbb. With two compartments in the capsule. 283–293.
Ua. With equal number of filaments. 253–261.
Ub. With unequal number of filaments. 262–282.
AD. 132. 249–251.
BAa. With individual seeds.
BAaa. With naked seeds. 122. 123. 126.
BAab. With covered seeds. 125. 127. 136.
BAb. With many covered seeds. 312.
BB. 235–248.
CAa. With flower attached to the receptacle. 229–236.
CAb. With receptacle and flower separated by an intermediate fruit. 316. 317.
CAc. With stamens in the flower. 219. 220. 224. 227.
CAd. With uncertain position of stamens, or partly in the flower and partly in the receptacle. 137. 222. 223. 323. 324.
T. CBa. With disk-shaped, clustered fruit base on a shared stalk.
S. CBb. With divided fruit bases, each inflorescence on its own stalk.
Ta. With uniform, indehiscent fruit and single-petaled flower.
Taa. With anthers fused together. 138–179
Tab. With free anthers. 180. 181.
Tb. With juicy or otherwise variable fruit, and diversely shaped flower. 182. 184. 185. 219. 221.
Sa. In an umbel.
Saa. With dry, two-seeded fruit. 186–211.
Sab. With juicy fruit. 217.
Sb. In a false umbel or panicle.
Sba. With berry-like fruit. 215. 216.
Sbb. With single-seeded naked fruit. 182. 183. Sbc. With two-seeded fruit. 212–214.
§. 171.
Method According to Leaves.
A. Unusually shaped plants.B. Plants without anything leaf-like.
Mushrooms.
C. Plants whose leaves also serve as root and stem.
Algae (L.).
D. Plants whose leaves also serve as stem.
Ferns.
E. Plants whose stem is completely covered with persistent leaves.
Mosses.
F. Plants whose leaves are distinct from the stem and freely spread.
Herbs.
FA. Leaves with tissue of parallel fibers, which do not cross or anastomose. Point-germinating herbs.
FB. Leaves of succulent tissue with indistinct veins.
FC. Needle-like foliage: narrow, solid, mostly persistent leaves.
FD. Leaves with net-like vein tissue, with veins that cross and anastomose.
X. FAA. Dry leaves with bare fibers, no noticeable parenchyma. Scale-leaves.
U. FAB. More or less juicy leaves with noticeable parenchyma between the fibers.
Z. FDA. In a definite arrangement.
1. FDB. In free, indefinite arrangement.
ZA. Arising only from the root.
ZB. On the stem, opposite in pairs.
ZC. Several in a whorl.
YA. With stalks.
TB. With elongated and narrowed base.
YC. With blunt base attached to the stem.
S. YAA. Naked and roundish, strand-shaped stalk.
R. YAB. Stalk with ears (auricles).
Q. YAC. Stalk with a broadly spread-out base.
Note:
This method cannot be executed with the necessary precision at present, because a catalogue of not only the genera but also the species is required. Moreover, a thorough survey of our native plants according to the rules of this method is needed, in order to assign each species its proper place as dictated by these rules — which cannot be done from memory alone.
Execution of this Method.
Aa. Among the Algae L. (7.5.4. in part) — 1.2.3.
Ab. Among the mosses — 22.
Ac. Among the ferns — 32–36.
Ad. Among the herbs — 112.118.293.295.319.332.
Ae. Herbs that develop leaves only after flowering — 100–104.106–108.133.134.168.322.
Ba. Leafy fungi — 21.5
Bb. Spiny fungi — 19.
Bc. Pore fungi — 20.
Bd. Lattice fungi — 17.18.
Be. Fungi with smooth surface — 15.16.
Bf. Hollow fungi — 13.14.
Bg. Fungi with homogeneous substance — 12.13.6.
Ca. Herb-like — 32.8–11.
Cb. Crusty — 7.
Cc. Leathery — 5.
Cd. Skin- or intestine-like — 4.
Da. With only fruit-bearing leaves — 37–40.
Db. With sterile leaves — 35.36.
E. 22–31
Ea. Simple stems.
Eb. Branched stems.
Eba. In vertical direction.
Ebb. In prostrate, sprawling direction.
Ec. Leaf clusters at tips of stems or branches — 25.26.
Ed. Leaves of different kinds — 31.
Ee. Leaves with smooth edges.
Ef. Leaves with serrated or toothed edges — 26.11.31.
Eg. Broad leaves.
Ega. Broad leaves with blunt tip.
Egb. Broad leaves pointed at the tip.
Egc. With a hair at the tip.
Eh. Medium-width leaves.
Ei. Hair-like leaves.
Ek. Gaping leaves.
El. Roof-tile-like, overlapping leaves.
Em. Leaves with recurved tip.
En. With felt or fuzz between the leaves.
Xa. Stem or culm with nodes and leaves that form a sheath downward — 41–63.78.
Xb. Stem without nodes and without such leaf sheaths — 64–71.
Xaa. Culm ending in a spike.
Xab. Culm ending in a panicle.
Xaba. With compact panicle.
Xabb. With open panicle.
Xac. Flat leaves.
Xad. Bristle-like leaves.
Xae. Membranous mouth of the leaf sheath.
Xaf. Hairy mouth of the leaf sheath.
Xag. Split leaf sheath.
Xah. Unsliced leaf sheath.
Xai. Culm with side branches like secondary culms.
Xba. Flat leaves.
Xbb. Boat- or channel-shaped leaves.
Xbc. Naked stem.
Xbd. Round stem.
Xbe. Angled stem.
Ua. Spongy leaves with small translucent partitions — 73–77.
Ub. Sword-shaped leaves — 79.80.83.87.
Uc. Naked stem, or only basal leaves.
Ud. Simple stem.
Ue. Branched stem.
Uf. Sheathing leaves — 91–95.
Ug. Leaves with a base encircling the stem.
Uh. Leaves in a whorl.
Ui. Broad leaves.
Uk. Narrow leaves.
FB. 118.126.127.132.223.224.294.338.340.346–349.381.382.386.
a. Broad leaves.
b. Narrow leaves.
FC. 96–99.325.327.
ZAa. Milky plants — 145.147.227.
ZAb. Compound or divided leaves — 306.311.316.351.358.388.389.183.
ZAc. Simple leaves.
ZAca. Narrow, strap-shaped leaves — 72.182.313.318.332.
ZAcb. Broad leaves.
a. With petiole — 117.137.318.329.377.398.
b. Without petiole — 117.168.173.182.314.315.338.388.
ZBA. Compound or divided leaves — 179.180.183.316.
T. ZBb. Simple leaves.
Ta. Narrow leaves — 114.130.183.275.283.288.334.336.337–339.342–344.392.
Tb. Broad leaves.
Tba. On a quadrangular stem — 110.250.262–282.285–288.291.400.
Tbb. On a roundish stem.
a. With smooth edge — 114.134.218–221.250.251.296.304.305.307–309.312.332–335.339–341.343.345.393.
aa. With veins.
ab. Without veins.
ac. With petiole.
ad. Petiole embracing the stem.
b. With lobed edge — 178–181.283.316.
ZC. 113.120.212–214.283.342.345.394.
Sa. Simple leaf — 100–108.321.323–326.328.329.395.398.399.401.
Saa. With smooth edge.
Sab. With lobed edge.
Sb. Compound or divided leaf — 317.322.398.
R. 229–248.352–354.392.402–417.
Ra. Deciduous stipules.
Rb. Persistent stipules.
Rc. On the stem.
Rd. On the petiole.
Re. With parallel veins on both sides of the midrib — 403–417.
Rf. With radiating veins — 352–354.
Rg. Simple leaves.
Rh. Compound leaves.
Q. 122.123.185–211.356–364.
Qa. Sheathing base — 122.123.
Qb. Leaves with callous tips and teeth — 185–211.
Qc. Simple leaves.
Qd. Compound leaves.
YB. 124–129.136.138–177.180.181.324.369–391.398.
YBa. With smooth edge.
YBb. With lobed edge.
YCa. Simple leaves — 121.132.138–177.224–226.253–261.283.290.298.300–304.358.370–391.396.418.
YCb. Compound leaves — 138–177.183.299.366.367.370.371.376.377.389.
a. With smooth edge.
b. With lobed edge.
c. Tapering leaf.
d. Perforated leaf.
§. 172.
Eleventh Section
This eleventh section is intended as commentary on the classification presented in § 146, and as an aid in explaining the characters of the natural classes and families contained therein. It is hoped that the method of using the letters of the alphabet to indicate the divisions, the derivation of the lower from the higher, and their relationships to each other, will meet with approval, as it is more convenient than the usual genealogical-tree-like form.Among the eight principal classes indicated, the following oppositions are found:
A against B–H
B against C–H
C-D against E–H
E against F–H
F against G–H
G against H
Anyone who wishes to chart the family tree in the usual manner should take note of these oppositions.
§. 173.
Class A.
The various modes of generation and propagation of the plants belonging to this class are still shrouded in much obscurity and subject to many doubts; whereas in the other classes B–H, the mode of propagation, and especially the mutual relation of stamens and pistils as true sexual organs, is hardly a matter of dispute. And as long as the supposed analogy with the arrangements common in the rest of the plant kingdom has not been clearly demonstrated in 5, 8, 9, 10, 11, AC, and AD, it is better to consider that which is so doubtful as not existing at all.Due to this obscurity and the great diversity among these plants, the concept of this class can only be expressed in negative terms, namely: in many, no trace of fructification is found at all, and in those where something is visible, it bears no clear resemblance to what is usually called a flower (§ 53). In most, one or more of the main structural parts—root, stem, leaf, fructification—are either completely absent or not distinguishable as separate parts, but rather fused together. In general, the overall habit and form of a plant, as we are accustomed to in the plant kingdom, is missing.
Naturally, a class for which no other than negative definitions can be given can hardly be called a proper class, and therefore we will not present this one in its parts as a class in the usual sense, though taken collectively, it contains very natural families, and their common difference from the rest of the plant kingdom justifies this treatment.
Beginners in botany should not concern themselves with this class until they have acquired a fair knowledge of the other parts of the plant kingdom, since one must rely on the concepts of usual plant structure as a foundation, and through comparison with that, arrive at an understanding of the actual structure of these flowerless plants.
Another major difficulty in this class—not only for beginners, but even for botanists themselves—arises from the difficulty in determining what is a species or a variety. This is due, among other things, to our limited knowledge of their modes of propagation and even less control over their reproduction, unlike in the other classes, where generation can often be experimentally managed at will.
§. 174.
AA. 1, 2, 3 consist of:1 and 2 — only of threads
3 — of a cellular tissue
AA. 4, 5, 6 consist of a membranous, leaf-like, or gelatinous dense non-cellular substance:
4. Fine membranous skin without a stem, flat or enclosing a hollow space, without fructification.
5. Leathery skin with an internally running stem (excluding tree-like forms), usually bifurcated, with bladders or nodes, typically at the ends of the branches, where a kind of fructification appears.
6. Gelatinous substance without fructification; the leaf-like types approach 14 and 16.
AA. 7 Crust-like, homogeneous, mealy substance of various forms—thread-like, bushy, cup-shaped, leaf-shaped—generally show a kind of fructification consisting of an outgrowth (mostly shield-shaped), sprouting at the edge or ends, differing in color and substance from the rest of the plant.
AA. 8–11 Already exhibit more of the usual plant-like appearance in color and substance, and also a more distinctly organized fructification. They resemble leaves but lack a true root or stem.
9 and 10 — Have a fructification raised above the plant on a separate stalk and already show a difference in sex, although what is regarded as the female part may in fact merely be an outgrowth of germs.
11 Approaches AC.
§. 175.
AB. Fungi (Sponges)They have a fleshy, mostly soft, juicy, and quickly perishable substance, or, when dry and more long-lasting, a cork-like texture. Their bodies are compact, without branches (except in 15), without leaves, and nearly without roots. They bear and reproduce from seeds, which, however, are invisible to the naked eye and inconvenient as a basis for historical knowledge.
12–15. Have a simple body that is not divided into parts in any definite manner.
16–21. Have two main parts: a stem and a cap—although in some species that grow laterally out of trees, the stem is missing.
12. 13. Have their seeds inside their bodies, which are surrounded by a skin:
in 12, the inner substance is pulpy (mash-like),
in 13, it is fleshy.
Some species of 12 have a stem.
14. A somewhat indeterminate genus. Peziza lentifera bears a strong resemblance to the cup of liverworts.
15. Has its seeds in small bladders beneath a surface that appears smooth, although some threads break through this surface from the bladders.
16. Has an irregularly upturned cap made of leathery pieces or lobes, with a smooth surface on both sides. The cap is usually a single piece and hollow inside.
17. 18.
17: Has a club-shaped cap entirely made of latticework.
18: Has only a net-like covering over the cap.
19. 20. Have more or less spread-out caps in a horizontal position, convex on top, flat underneath.
19 (Tooth fungi): Underside of the cap is covered with spines.
20 (Tube or pore fungi): Underside has countless small, tightly packed open tubes.
21. (Gilled fungi): Underside is covered with vertical lamellae or gills, arranged radially from the edge toward the center.
21. To study this genus of gilled fungi, which is overrun with species and even more with varieties, the following instructions may be helpful:
Substance of the Cap:
Call it fleshy if the cap's interior (flesh beneath the skin) is roughly equal in thickness to the gills.
Membranous if the gills are covered only with the bare skin or nearly so.
Note also whether the stem is hollow or solid, and whether the whole fungus gives off juice or milk, or is dry, splitting into fibers, felt-like, or corky.
Skin of Cap and Stem:
Observe whether the surface is smooth, shiny, mealy, flaky, sticky, striated, transparent, etc.
Regularity of the Gills:
Note whether the gills are equal or unequal—some do not reach the center but end between it and the edge.
Distance and Density of Gills:
Dense and numerous if you cannot see the bottom of the cap between them.
Sparse and distant if the gaps are wide enough that the base is clearly visible.
Stem Length Compared to Cap Diameter:
Short: Does not exceed half the cap's diameter.
Medium: Does not exceed the whole diameter by much.
Very long: Several times longer than half the cap’s diameter.
Stem Thickness Compared to Cap Flesh Thickness:
Compare to see if it's proportionally thick or thin.
Attachment of Gills to Stem:
Usually, the gills end near the central point in a circle around the stem without connecting to it.
Sometimes the gills run onto the stem and disappear into it.
Gills Degenerating into Folds:
Sometimes the structures aren’t true lamellae, but irregular folds that lack clear linear direction and may merge or form networks (anastomose).
Shape of the Cap:
Conical, hemispherical, flat, or bowl-shaped indentations do not provide reliable traits, as these forms change with age.
Volva and Ring:
These structures are not good distinguishing features of species, as they are temporary and do not last as long as the whole fungus.
Color:
Colors fade and vary, so they are poor identifiers, except possibly when two distinctly different colors appear on different parts of the same fungus.
§. 176.
AC. The mosses have roots, stems, and leaves; the stem is mostly branched, covered all over with persistent leaves, and the entire plant remains green, even regaining this appearance after drying out. The leaves are attached to the stem without a stalk, positioned in no specific, recognizable pattern from one side to the other, and are variously shaped, but mostly pointed at the front end. In some species of genus 31, leaves of different characteristics can be found on the same stem. In genus 22, they seem to be absent, but under a magnifying glass, they appear at the bulbous node from which the entire stem consists, in the form of small scales. In some mosses, especially those growing in moist locations, in addition to the leaves, there is a more or less dense wool on the stem, the hairs from which this wool is made seem to be a type of root fibers. In genus 22, the stem is covered with raised points resembling warts.The fruiting bodies (Fructification) are not uniform across the whole class. The usual form, found in species 23-26 and 28-30, is as follows: from the end of the stem or branches, a capsule emerges without a stalk or on a stalk, with a firmly attached, more or less beak-shaped lid, and is covered in most cases by a small cap (Hütgen). The capsule is filled with a green paste, which turns into a fine brown powder. It forms beneath the cap and is initially completely covered by it; as it grows, the cap is pushed off and splits. When the powder ripens, the lid and cap fall off, and then fine hairs, like those on eyelids, usually appear at the opening of the capsule, pointing from the edge towards the center.
The leaf-covered base of the stem in genus 23 can rightly be considered the beginning of a branch. The cap is the outer covering of the entire fruiting body that forms beneath it, much like a young sponge within its egg-shaped shell, and may be considered an essential part, which seems to be absent in genus 30, because it falls off early due to the spherical shape of the capsule, and one generally arrives too late to observe it. In most species of genus 26, a double capsule is visible, one inside the other, with the inner dark capsule filled with powder or dust appearing to protrude through the outer one, leaving a space between the two. This is a feature observable in most mosses. In genus 22, a similar arrangement appears, as well as in species of genus 27, in the vascular stem, along with a similar stalk, as will be reported next in Polytrichum: the bladder beneath the capsule arises from an enlargement of the stem. Perhaps all mosses have a double capsule, but in most cases, the two layers are fused, and only in some species does the outer layer separate, swell, and blister in different ways. Perhaps a separate section could be created for mosses that bear such a form of capsule enclosed within a bladder (capsula tunicata), and the genera 22, 26, and 27 would fall into this category. It might also be worth noting that in Polytrichum commune, a stalk running through the capsule like a column is visible, which is actually a continuation of the stem of the capsule, and when the attached powder is removed, it is covered with fine threads resembling hairs, much like the column in a fruit capsule (columella capfulae) of flowering plants. I have observed such a stalk in the capsules of several mosses.
Regarding the usual fruiting body described earlier, according to the above-mentioned notes, genera 22 and 27 do not fundamentally differ, but in genus 31, a great variety is seen. Here, no capsule with its accessories is found, but instead, anthers consisting of two lobes without a stalk, located in the angles between the leaf and the stem, one in each angle, or beneath leaf-like scales that overlap like roof tiles in a gable.
One of the European species, Lycopodium Selaginoides (Flora Danica, f. 70), in addition to these typical anthers, which it shares with its relatives and carries beneath the leaves closer to the end of the branch, also has another type of fruiting body beneath the leaves located lower on the stem, consisting of four paired spherical capsules, each with a transverse slit, somewhat like the seeds in genus 36. The moss depicted in Flora Danica, f. 215, may initially be classified in genus 31, but it is in itself a peculiar plant.
In some mosses, there is also an irregularly called "fructification," namely a leaf-like sprouting at the tip of the stem in the shape of a star, or along its sides, or also at the tip of the stalk where a capsule would normally emerge. However, this so-called fructification can hardly be seen as anything other than a type of sprouting, similar to what is observed in flowering plants in the plant kingdom, where either new shoots emerge alongside the regular fructification, which either fall off or remain attached to the mother plant, or the seed still grows and develops on the plant. This is why sections 48 and 91 are recalled. The number of mosses that exhibit such sprouting is far too small compared to the total number of mosses to consider it a typical and characteristic mode of reproduction for the entire class, and one would still be justified in assuming that such sprouts are present in all mosses, even where not the slightest trace of them is visible. The presence of a great number of small plants adhering to the mosses further compels the belief in the existence of a fine and abundant seed, which is most naturally sought within the capsules.
The aforementioned Lycopodium Selaginoides particularly confirms the hypothesis that the usual reproductive system of the plant kingdom, involving the interaction of two sexual parts, also applies to this class. However, it is still an unclear question as to what the parts of each sex might be. Perhaps they are located closer together than one might believe, and united in a single capsule with its accessories, like in the capsules of Pilularia, and perhaps mosses, like flowering plants, are hermaphroditic, with the exception of some species? If one accepts the previously indicated irregular fructification in mosses as nothing more than sprouts, not as a feature of the female sex, in contrast to the capsules with their accessories, which represent the male sex and should be nothing more than what the pollen threads and bags are in other plants, then the section of the class containing mosses with separate sexes would no longer exist, and genus 25 would have to be absorbed, with its species distributed among genera 23 and 24, as is done for other plants where such sprouting is typical, e.g., certain grass species or species from genera 122, 223, and 376, for which no separate genus is created. Additionally, for many species previously classified under genus 25, where the supposed male and female plants are often not found together, one might be confused if only a male plant is available, as there would be no clear way to tell if it belongs to genera 23, 24, or genus 25.
Furthermore, the specific characteristics of the Linnaean genera 22-31 can be found in their respective places on page 153.
§. 177.
AD. 35-40. Ferns. They have roots and leaves but no stem. The root is strong and woody. The leaves are, for the most part, highly divided, and before they break out, they are spirally rolled inward. They have a notably long petiole, which is usually triangular and has a groove on its inner side, and is typically covered with a sticky substance, especially in young plants. The leaf with its petiole takes the place of the stem; from the petiole and its veins, the fruiting bodies emerge, and some species of genus 36 prove that the stems found in other species of the same genus and in genus 35, dedicated to the fruiting bodies, are actually petioles, which are only partially or not at all covered with leaves. In genera 37-40, all leaves, without exception, bear fruiting bodies.The fruiting bodies are not entirely the same. In genera 37-40, they form on the underside of the leaves and consist of a powder, which is arranged in round clusters or in lines in different directions, or may cover the entire surface of the leaf, and is partially covered by the raised epidermis in some species. Under a magnifying glass, this powder appears as round grains, which contain many smaller grains within a thin shell. In some species, each such grain is wrapped with a ring in its center, which resembles a string of beads. In genus 36, the naked eye can clearly see each individual grain with a transverse slit, which opens when the grain ripens. In genus 35, the fruiting bodies lie flattened with a transverse slit, in two rows tightly packed together, and without separating from one another.
The whole fruiting body is still shrouded in much uncertainty. It is highly probable that the powder contained in the aforementioned grains and capsules is the seed, but whether there is also a difference in gender in this class, and whether something similar to stamens and pollen tubes exists, is still not clearly established. For instance, in the aforementioned species, where the grain is surrounded by the bead-like ring, the beads could represent the place of the anthers, with the seed contained in the grain itself, and fertilization would occur when the shell of the grain or capsule breaks? And in the other cases, where no such ring is present, the fertilizing pollen could lie next to the seed in the same capsule?
Genera 32-34 have been added alongside ferns following the example of other herb experts, though without claiming that they form a natural class with the ferns.
Genus 34 shows very little resemblance to ferns and is added by some modern botanists to the genera found in CA. If its visible fruiting body is only the male part, the female part must be sought, though no trace of it has been found so far.
Genera 32 and 33 are closely related to one another.
Genus 33 resembles ferns in that its leaves are initially spirally rolled. It is likely that the powder in which the seed grains lie in the capsules represents the place of the anthers, and this raises the possibility that, in many flowerless plants, both sex organs are closer together than one might think.
§. 178.
B. The name of this section is derived from a circumstance that, at the time when people sought to learn about plants, it was usually not possible to inquire about. Nonetheless, the parallel-fibered tissue of the plants belonging to this section is at all times a sufficient characteristic of these spiky-seeding plants, which undoubtedly make up a natural main section of the plant kingdom.The seed’s core does not split into two or more pieces, as in plants from the other sections C-H, where these pieces grow into distinct seed leaves, with the plant developing between them. Instead, these spiky-seeding plants only grow with one leaf, which appears just as the following leaves do.
The stem mostly emerges from one or more sheaths between the leaves, so that the leaves seem to peel off from the stem and develop from it. Therefore, the leaves are usually solitary, and several from a single point on the stem are extremely rare. They do not have actual petioles but only a narrowed base. The stem also does not have a firm, dense body and no type of growth above the root, unlike all the genera 51-95.
The main characteristic of the entire class, as already mentioned, is the tissue of these plants, especially their leaves, which consist of parallel fibers that do not, like the veins and nerves in the other sections C-H, branch out and form a net-like structure.
In the parts of the fruiting body, the number three predominates, and exceptions are rare.
§. 179.
BA. Grass. The roots are not all the same, but in many cases, like the stem, they are jointed, creeping, and send out roots from the joints. The stalk is round, made up of hollow joints with visible nodal points, and at each joint, its direction changes slightly, so that, with the lower joints being shorter and closer to the root, they deviate from the vertical direction and approach the ground. From these lowest nodes, roots and new shoots emerge, allowing for tillering or branching; for the parts farther from the earth, each stalk is usually simple, and the branches, which appear in some species, do not reach the stage of fruiting. The stalk breaks through a cluster of root-leaves, lifting some leaves, roughly one per joint, upwards. These leaves standing on the stalk consist of two parts: a tubular sheath, closed or slit, around the stalk, and the actual leaf, which projects from the stalk. Between the two, at the mouth of the tube, there is a bract or ligule made of a fine white membrane, or sometimes, though rarely, just hairs. The leaf is typically a narrow, flat blade, pointed at the tip, but the end is usually not flat, rather it is spoon-shaped. The underside is smooth, while the upper side is more or less deeply striated. Sometimes the leaf is not flat like a blade but shaped like a tongue.The upper part of the stalk bears the fruiting bodies and is usually hidden in a sheath or spathe made by the top leaf when the fruiting bodies are still incomplete. The fruiting bodies sit either stalkless in a spike around the upper part of the stalk, or the stalk branches into smaller stems, and the fruiting bodies then form in a panicle, each on its own little stalk.
The flower consists of a bare seed with two pollen tubes and three long filaments, also with long anthers, both enclosed between two small bracts, which open during flowering, allowing the pollen tubes and filaments to reach the open air. Afterwards, they close around the seed and often cannot be separated again. Such a flower, or several of them together, has a floral cover at its base made of other mostly similar bracts, and together this forms a small spikelet. (See §. 73.) The flowers are generally hermaphroditic, but in some species, an incomplete flower from the female part may occasionally appear. Additionally, some genera have other parts of the flower.
Beginners are usually daunted by this class, and botanists can attest that almost no other class has a more troublesome and unpleasant comparison of synonyms, because so little decisive information is found in the literature. However, this is not the fault of nature, as it has introduced enough diversity into the structure of grasses, but rather the fault of botanists, with a few exceptions, who typically provide superficial descriptions and neglect the finer details that would make a difference, or they repeat the common characteristics of the whole class for each species, while the specific features that should distinguish the species are drowned in trivial details.
Genera 41-44 have their flowers in spikes, while the following ones have them in panicles. Genera 45 and 46, in part, also have a form of one-sided spike.
Genera 47-53 have notably large floral covers in which the flowers (in most genera, individual flowers) are enclosed.
Genera 54-58 have small, mostly pointed individual flowers (except for some in genus 54) in a small cover, with genus 55 having no cover.
Genera 59-63 have spikelets made up of several flowers with notably broad bracts.
§. 180.
BB. Have a mostly triangular stem without joints. The leaves are not flat, but in some cases, round or spoon-shaped, triangular. Flowers in catkins, mostly with separate sexes. Also, three filaments, like the true grasses. A seed with one pollen tube and mostly a three-lobed stigma. The seed is usually enclosed.Genus 69 connects this section with genera 79 and 80.
BC. Flowers are flower-like. Six filaments. Seeds in capsules.
Genus 72 has no true flower, or as is commonly thought, three flower petals, three bracts of the flower cover; rather, these are undifferentiated six small bracts that are arranged in two layers, and each bract has a stamen underneath it. This genus is close to BE, and may possibly have unknown sub-genera in nature.
§. 181.
BD. Includes two families: one (genera 73-75) with many fruits from a single flower, and the other (genera 76, 77) with a capsule containing many chambers. Overall, they differ from BF, partly due to their unique flower covering. Genera 76 and 77 have individual flowers on stems originating from the root, with a flower covering. In genera 74, 76, and 77, there is a separation of the sexes.BE. Includes three families, characterized by flowers on a flower stem that are often clustered tightly together. In genera 78, 81, and 82, the stem emerges from a flower sheath, while in genera 79 and 80, the usual leaves take their place. In genera 78, 79, 81, and 82, the individual flowers lack distinct coverings and intermingle in their crowded arrangement, making it difficult to clearly identify each individual fruiting.
Genus 78 is similar to BA. 41-44. It also has joints. The flower stem resembles a spike emerging from the sheath, with a pair of stamens for each seed, showing, despite the lack of a unique covering, enough similarity to BA.
Genera 79 and 80 are closer to BB, and genus 69 forms the connection.
Genera 81 and 82 seem to have some relation to genera 72 and 121.
Most plants belonging to BD and BE are aquatic plants, with a characteristic spongy tissue, including small cross walls that allow light to pass through, dividing the entire substance into cells.
§. 182.
BF. Partially have a bulb or tuberous root, but generally have a strong, more or less fleshy root, and a typically noticeable flower with two sets of three leaves, or six leaves in two different layers, three or six stamens, usually a three-lobed stigma, and generally a three-lobed fruit.Genus 83 forms its own family and is distinguished by the sword-shaped overlapping leaves, which do not face the surface but rather the sheath toward the stem, and by the flower on the fruit.
Genera 64-86 have a six-petaled, more or less bell-shaped flower.
Genera 87 and 88 have a six-petaled, radial flower.
Genus 89 has many clustered flowers from a flower covering.
Genus 90 has a single-petaled flower. In one species of this genus, the flower is divided into four parts with four stamens, completely contrary to the usual character of the class.
§. 183.
BG. Overall, they have a tuberous root, consisting of mostly paired or elongated, split, or bunch-like tubers; leaves, each surrounding the stem with a sheath; flowers on the fruit in a spike, each with its own flower bract. The fruit is coiled and often contains fine seeds that are attached to the three segments of the fruit. In the flower and on the fruit, instead of a pollen tube, there is a callous body, which simultaneously carries a pair of stamens on almost imperceptible threads. On both sides of this body, two identical flower petals stand upright, and from their base extends an irregular, variously shaped flower petal that is hollowed out into a blunt cavity or sac, or into a sharp spur, with a horizontally extended lip, so that the cavity between the callous body and the lip opens. Surrounding these parts of the flower is a flower covering made of three identical petals, some of which are counted as part of the flower because they are also colored. See §. 64.§. 184.
C. Have their flowers carried under scales in catkins, or otherwise in this form, either partly or entirely separated by sex, except for genus 105.CA. These are trees and shrubs with narrow, solid or fibrous, evergreen leaves. The male flowers are separated in genus 96, and completely separated in genera 97 and 98. The fruit is a cone in genus 96, and a berry in genera 97 and 98.
Genus 99 seems to be most similar to genus 98 in the stem, leaves, and the triadic arrangement of fruiting organs, and is best placed in this section; it also bears its new shoots like genus 96, emerging from the tips of older ones.
CB. Genera 100-108 are trees.
Genera 100 and 101 have female flowers resembling the male ones in catkins, with two-chambered capsules filled with many fine, hairy seeds.
Genera 102-104. The female fruiting organs are entirely different from the male ones, and are found in an opening bud. The fruit is a type of nut.
Genera 105-108. The female catkins resemble the male ones. Genus 105 has hermaphroditic flowers. The fruit is a hard-shelled seed.
Genus 108 can be distinguished by a line from genus 107, and has closer relatives among non-native plants.
Genus 109 has closer relatives not found in our area, and shows some floral similarities with certain genera in plants with compound flowers.
Genera 110 and 111 have a single seed. They are related to section 124-129 through genus 124 but are also linked by their leaves and other characteristics to genera 105-107.
In this entire section C, there are more features of similarity in overall growth, particularly in the leaves, than in the fruiting organs. This has already been shown for CA. In CB, it can be further developed. The leaves have petioles; persistent or falling ears; are usually arranged from one side to the other, with few exceptions; lie in many cases in the same plane as the stem, most evident in young shoots; in many species, one half of the leaf extends longer down the petiole than the other; in genera 102-107, 110, 111, the leaves are folded, with rough spots, hairs, or glands scattered over them, and so on.
§. 185.
D. Overall, they have incomplete flowers, which mostly lack the strikingly beautiful appearance typical of flowers. These flowers are partly naked or not covered by a flower bract, or the flower is simple, consisting only of the flower itself without a bract. Meanwhile, this class is not considered entirely natural, and it has been named based on a generally occurring feature, although some genera with incomplete flowers, for better reasons, are better placed elsewhere, especially those from DC, where they may find better locations.DA. Carry their flowers in the angles of the leaves or partly surrounded by floral coverings. All are aquatic plants, and genus 118 at least is a coastal plant.
Genera 112-116. Have flowers without distinct coverings or a bract, except possibly genus 114.
Genera 117 and 118 have their flowers embedded in the substance of the leaves.
Genera 119-121. Have a type of flower arranged in whorls on the stem, with genus 121 having them clustered in a spike.
Genera 112-116. Due to the lack of distinct coverings, the apparent separation of the sexes in some species of these genera should hardly be regarded as a true separation.
Genus 112 is too closely related to genus 113 to be classified with the Algis.
Genera 115 and 116 seem to form almost a single genus.
Genus 121 shows some relationship to genera 81 and 82.
§. 186.
DB. The name is derived from the flower arrangement, as in most species, the flowers are frequently and densely grouped in clusters or clumps in the angles of the leaves or on separate stems. They have a single seed (except genus 129), either naked or surrounded by a fine shell. In many species, there is a separation of the sexes.Genera 122 and 123. The leaves form a sheath around the stem, giving it the appearance of joints. Each stalk, including the main stem and its branches, is particularly encased at the base with a skin or sheath. The fruit is a naked triangular seed.
Genus 124 is closely related to genus 110.
Genera 125-129. Have a flattened, round seed, which in genera 127 and 129 is surrounded by a capsule.
Genus 130 has not yet been clearly placed.
DC. This entire section is not natural but merely arbitrary, and the genera included here require comparison with many plants not found in our area, as well as with many species that likely exist in nature but are yet to be discovered. They generally have seed cases or berries.
§. 187.
E. in comparison with F and G. H. In G. and H. the ovary occupies the central point of the fruiting body, with the flower surrounding it, the flower-cover surrounding the flower, and it is completely separated from both as a distinct part. These three main parts of the fruiting body have their own concentric positions.In F. the always multi-leafed flower and the stamens have their place and position in and on the flower-cover, which, although it protrudes from the ovary at its upper part, is more or less clearly connected to it at the bottom, and forms the base of the fruit.
In G. the ovary is fully incorporated into the flower-cover, and this is inseparably attached around it, so that often only a small edge of the flower-cover protrudes over the fruit. The flower with the stamens therefore finds its place on the fruit.
EA-EE. The plants in these five divisions bear connected fruiting bodies, either under a common cover on a fruit base spread over an inseparable surface, without distinct stems, or on distinct stems that are variously connected in a main stem. Generally, the fruiting bodies grow from the ends of the branches, and where they seem to stand (in a few cases) in the angles of the leaves, one might reasonably regard this as the beginning of a branching shoot.
§. 188.
EA. Plants with compound flowers. See §§ 66-71. Among all native plants, there is not a single tree or shrub, but the stem is weak, hollow inside or filled with pith, and the structure of wooden fibers is separated by much parenchyma. The leaves stand from one side to the other, except for genera 178 and 179, which are entirely without stems. The individual fruiting bodies are all grouped closely together without distinct stems, on a base that is bordered with small leaves which overlap the fruiting bodies like an actual flower-cover over their bloom. The fruit base is actually the expanded tip of the stem, the stem of a compound flower is a branch, and the leaves that make up the cover of the compound flower are the leaves of the branch, only differing from the other leaves of the stem, and sometimes only in size.The base is covered with small depressions, in which the fruiting bodies are embedded, and between the depressions, it is often covered with hairs and leaves.
The flower-cover shows endless variations in the form of the leaves, their state, and their arrangement with each other. Three main types should be noted: a flower-cover with a simple layer of parallel leaves or scales, a flower-cover with many scales lying like roof tiles, and a cover with a base that consists of two segments.
The fruit is a seed with an attached flower-cover, which sometimes protrudes over the seed and crowns it with a rim, but more often lies flat against the seed and is barely noticeable, so that in these flowers, no distinct flower-cover seems to be present. This seed can, after reaching maturity, be covered with a crown of leaves or tips, or a crown of hairs, and this hair-crown consists of simple or feathered hairs, which can also sometimes rise on a separate stem sitting on the seed.
On the fruit sits the flower, which is generally single-leaved and has a tube, but is otherwise variously shaped at the opening, namely with a regular bell- or star-shaped throat and mouth, or with a deeply dissected irregular round-bent throat and mouth, and a long, also irregularly curved tube, or with a flat, outward-pointing tail at the end of the compound flower.
These different flowers are in different connections, collected on the same fruit base within the common cover, and form four main forms of a compound flower, depending on whether they consist of only twisted, only long-tubular, only regular tubular, or fourthly, a combination of twisted and regular tubular flowers simultaneously, with those in the middle, and others around the edge.
Also regarding the sexual parts, the individual flowers are different, and among them are hermaphrodites, infertile hermaphrodites, female, and sexless flowers. The twisted flowers in the starry flowers are always female.
The stamens are five in number, embedded in the tube of the flower, but their anthers are fused into a tube through which the pollen pathway runs and protrudes at the top with its two-lobed stigma.
EA 138-150. These have flowers composed entirely of twisted hermaphrodite flowers. They generally give milk.
EA 151-157. These have bulbous flowers composed of irregular long-tubular flowers. Genus 157. has sexless flowers on the edge, also different in shape from the others. All the prominent points on the edges of their leaves, as well as the leaves or scales of the flower-cover, have a more or less stiff and pointed tip.
Genera 158-161. Have flat flowers made up of regular flowers, except for genus 158.
Genera 165-175. Have star-shaped flowers made up of regular flowers in the center and twisted flowers at the edge, but in a few species of genus 171, the twisted flowers are absent.
Genera 176-179. Have leaves on the fruit base between the flowers.
§. 189.
EB. These plants have opposite leaves, free-standing stamens that are not connected to the anthers, and a seed clearly enclosed and bordered by its own flower-cover. Despite many similarities, the genera included in this section also differ considerably from each other and combine several classes, particularly genus 184, which connects the divisions EA and EC, as well as the genera in the EE division, which do the same on their side.Genera 180, 181, 182 (partly), and 184 have a common flower-cover, as in EA. Genus 183 and mostly genus 182 carry their fruiting bodies on distinct stems, which come from a stem or branch that entirely dissolves into stems, with a small leaf at each fruiting body.
Genera 180, 181, 183, and 184 have single-leaved flowers, which in 180, 181, resemble the irregular tubular flowers of EA, but without such long tubes. Genus 182 has a five-petaled flower.
The number of stamens varies; 180, 181, and 184 have four, 182 has five, and also five pollen paths, 183 has one, two, three, or four stamens in different species, with one species being sexually distinct. It is not easy to find a genus in the entire plant kingdom whose species differ so much in all the specific parts of the fruiting body.
§. 190.
EC. Umbelliferous. This is a natural class as much as EA, and closely related, as especially genera 184-185 show, and it becomes evident when one mentally gives the individual fruiting bodies of compound flowers stems, or takes the stems from the fruiting bodies of the umbelliferous plants.They mostly have a spindle-shaped main root, always externally marked by rings, from which the smaller root strands spring stepwise, often hollow inside and divided by cross-walls.
The stem does not form trees or shrubs but is weak, mostly hollow, with a cross-wall at each leaf and strands of woody fibers separated by parenchyma, which shine through as streaks, and when cut transversely, the parenchyma gives off an oily-colored sap, while the parenchyma itself exudes a watery one. Branches and leaves stand from one side to the other.
The leaves surround the stem with their stalks spread into a sheath, and are rarely simple, but are divided by multiple nerves of the stalk into a feathery structure. Each tip of a leaf, or each tooth of a leaflet, has a callous point.
The fruiting bodies are arranged in umbels, on noticeably long stems, with a few exceptions, and in compound umbels, a few exceptions excluded. Around the union point of the stems, most species have bracts of leaves, which can be compared to the flower-cover in EA, either around all union points, both general and specific to each small umbel, or only around the latter. Sometimes, however, these bracts are entirely absent.
The fruit consists of two seeds glued together at their flat sides, which separate upon reaching maturity, and is covered by the attached flower-cover, the presence of which is indicated by an edge that protrudes over the embryo.
On the embryo lies a callous fruit base divided into two hills, from which two pollen paths, five stamens, and five flower petals spring. The flower petals are heart-shaped, sometimes flat, but usually raised from the split with a tip. Sometimes, flowers at the edge of the umbel differ from those in the middle, as in the starry flowers in EA, and in each flower, particularly those directed towards the circumference of the umbel, the petals are larger than their adjacent petals. Occasionally, especially in crowded umbels, there are sterile flowers in the center.
EC. 185. has fruiting bodies without stems on a cone-shaped raised base.
Also has fruiting bodies without stems, but in a flat arrangement.
187-190. Have flattened seeds and notably broad leaves. 187. Differs particularly through its bracts and simple leaves.
191-192. Have winged seeds.
193-199. Have striped seeds of varying noticeable thickness in length.
200-201. Differ through the crown formed from the flower-cover that protrudes above the seed.
202-204. Have hairy and spiny seeds.
203-204. Have notably starry umbels.
Differ particularly through its bracts made of large feathery leaves.
Also differs through the leaves of its bracts, which are arranged only on one side.
206-207. Have long, pointed seeds.
208-211. Have no bracts at all, neither around the general nor around the individual umbels.
§. 191.
ED. Starry Plants. Like the umbrella-bearing plants, they also have a fruit covered by the flower cup, consisting of two seeds. Most of our native species are round. The flower sitting on the embryo is single-leafed and regular; in some species, it is flat or radially shaped, in others funnel-shaped, usually with four, and in a few with three indentations, with as many stamens as indentations, and a two-lobed pollen path. Some species not growing in our areas have male flowers or, in fact, infertile hermaphroditic flowers intermixed with fertile ones. The fertilizations are located on stems, which typically break up into small branches, in a panicle-like formation.The stem is mostly square or otherwise angular, weak, so it requires support from other bodies, and spreads out in a way that appears segmented through the leaves, which sit in a whorl around it. Often, there are ear-like structures beside the leaves, and the leaves are always simple, mostly narrow, with a lance-shaped tip.
§. 192.
EE. What has been said above for EA also applies here. This cannot be considered a natural class, but the same genera share much in common and serve to connect several classes from different sides. They have opposite leaves and enclosed seeds in a fruit with compartments, which are juicy in species 215-218 and 221, and dry in species 219-220, with their fertilizations connected by their position in a sort of union.Genera 215, 216, 217 approach the umbrella-bearing plants, especially 215 and 216.
Genera 218-221 approach ED.
§. 193.
EF. This is not a natural class by its scope but contains three natural families. In some species of 223, the flower cup does not completely cover the fruit, but it is only attached to the base of the embryo, leaving a space between the flower and the fruit. The two families 222-227 have a dry fruit with compartments and many seeds.Genera 222-224 have a juicy stem and leaves, with little noticeable venation. Genera 222 and 223 have a capsule with two compartments and beaks; 223 has five petals, while 222 has no petals from the cup but a simple yet colored flower.
Genus 224 seems to connect family 222, 223 with families 225-227, especially with 225 due to its additions or lobes in the flower.
Genera 225-227 produce milk and share the main characteristic of their similarity in the stamens, which come together over the pollen path and stigma.
Genus 228 is the only native example from the gourd family. These are creeping plants with square stems and branches at the angles between the stem, with angular or fragmented leaves on stalks from one side to the other. They have flowers with partially separated sexes, each with a five-part flower and flower cup. The filaments and anthers are joined in various ways. The fruit is a capsule covered in flesh with three compartments.
§. 194.
FA. This group contains many trees and shrubs, and in general, all these plants have a solid, compact, woody substance.The leaves are attached to stems, with ears mostly attached to the stem, though in some cases, they are attached to the trunk and easily fall off, as in 229 and 230. The fibers of the stem create a noticeable tissue in the leaf with strong, palpable veins, often separating from each other, forming finger-like lobed and pinnate leaves, sometimes mixed with large and small scales.
The flower cup has a depression, around which, like a ring, sit the flower petals and filaments. Outside this ring, the cup is often divided into two distinct layers of lobes. In genus 229, the embryo seems not to be fused with the flower cup, and before the fruit ripens, the cup falls off. In others, however, the flower cup, particularly its mentioned depression, forms the base for the fruit. In many species, the fruit is completely enclosed in the "belly" of the flower cup, which grows and becomes fleshy, forming a navel-like structure on top. In others, the lobes of the cup fold over the ripening seeds inside it. In genera 235, 244, and 245, the flower is absent; in the others, it consists of five, rarely four, rose-like petals. In some, the number of filaments equals the indentations of the flower cup, while in others, two or more times as many filaments form clusters of unequal lengths. Only in some species of 235, 236, and 237 does sex differentiation occur, or rather, the hermaphrodites are incomplete on either the male or female side.
Genus 229 produces stone fruit or a nut covered in flesh. The flower cup falls off before the fruit ripens.
Genus 230 produces a capsule covered by the flesh of the attached flower cup.
Genera 231-233. The flower cup becomes a fleshy fruit closed in a navel-like structure, with as many seeds as there are pollen paths.
Genus 234. The "belly" of the flower cup becomes a transparent berry.
Genus 235. Produces a berry without a navel. It has no flower petals.
Genus 236. Produces several capsules from each flower.
Genera 237-248. Have an indefinite number of bare seeds in the bottom of the flower cup, each carrying its pollen path alongside its tip. In 238, the depression of the flower cup becomes bulging and closes at the top, like in 231-233; in others, the depression is flat, or the seed pod rises from it. In 237 and 239, the seed pod becomes juicy and forms a berry, and in 237, especially, each seed is covered with flesh. In 244, there is only one seed, and in 245, only two, and neither has a flower.
§. 195.
FB. They also have a multi-petaled flower, with stamens sitting on the flower cup in the same indentations. In some species, especially 249, the cup and the young fruit are connected. The fruit is a capsule in all cases. The leaves in most species are opposite each other.However, this division is not a natural class. Genus 249, with its non-native relatives, seems to approach the EF family (225-227). The lobes of their flower cup fall off, but its "belly" is attached to the fruit and opens into segments. In genera 250 and 251, there is no noticeable connection between the cup and the fruit. In genus 252, the cup grows attached to the fruit after flowering.
§. 196.
G. In total, they have a single-leafed flower except for genera 329-331, and the stamens are incorporated into the tube of the flower, in the same number as the indentations of the flower, where it is regular, and in most irregular flowers, in a non-matching number. The GE division makes an exception in terms of the position of the stamens, which will be explained later. All are hermaphroditic without exception.GA. Pure herbs. Their leaves are opposite each other on the stem, without petioles, and are mostly covered with stiff hairs and rough dots, giving them a rough texture.
The flowers are in a one-sided spike, initially coiled in a spiral from the top down, and during blooming, they uncoil and straighten.
The flower and flower cup are five-parted, regular, except for a few. Many have certain protrusions between the tube and mouth of the flower. The filaments are five. The pollen path is tube-like with a simple stigma, around the base of which four seeds are situated, and are more or less attached to the style. In some species, the skin of the seed peels off, so that it can be regarded as a capsule. In general, the fruit of these flowers must be imagined as a capsule divided into compartments, stripped of its shell, in which the style forms the column from which the seeds hang, or as four capsules standing in a circle around a column, as will be shown in HC. In most species, the flower cup covers the ripening fruit.
§. 197.
GB. These plants have a square stem, paired branches crossing each other, opposite leaves without petioles, and fertilizations in the angles of the leaves, which are arranged around the stem in a whorl or crown, sometimes lifting up on a common main stem. The stem is mostly straight, relatively rich in woody fibers, often becoming a shrub, but no trees are found among our natives. The leaves have very strong venation, often wrinkled, often hairy, often sprinkled with deep dots, mostly simple, and only rarely divided.The flowers are irregular. The flower cup always has a deep tube or "belly," in which the seeds ripen, but the opening is regular in some species with five lobes or teeth, and in most, irregular with a lip-like division, usually with three teeth on the upper lip and two on the lower lip.
The flower typically has a tube that protrudes above the belly of the cup, and a lip-like opening with five main indentations, where two upward-facing lobes belong to the upper lip and three in a horizontal position belong to the lower lip, with the middle one usually extending over the side lobes. The two lobes of the upper lip are often fused, forming a helmet-like arch over the stamens. Occasionally, the upper lip seems to disappear or is flattened, and the entire opening takes on a regular appearance. The back of the flower is inward, the opening between the lips, and the lower lip is turned outward, but in some foreign species, the orientation is reversed.
The stamens are four, in two pairs: one longer and higher in position, the other shorter and lower in position, emerging from the back of the flower tube beneath the upper lip. Their filaments run down the tube as noticeable stripes. In some genera, only one pair of stamens is found.
The pollen path comes from the middle of the four seeds, bending toward the back of the flower between the two pairs of stamens, and splits in a fork-like fashion into two pointed, slightly unequal stigmas, one of which faces the back of the flower and the shorter one is bent outward.
The fruit consists of four seeds that are attached around the pollen path. This fruit is best imagined as a capsule stripped of its shell, where the pollen path with its base forms the central column.
Genera 262, 263, 268 only have one pair of stamens, but genus 268 has a transverse thread on each, with a complete anther at one end and an incomplete one at the other.
Genera 262-264 generally have a regular flower with a flat, spreading mouth all around.
Genera 275-278 have a covering of flower petals around the flower crown.
Genera 279, 280 have a completely regular flower cup.
Genus 281, like a few others, such as 263, bears its flowers on multi-parted stems.
Genus 282 is distinguished by its very peculiar flower cup, whose opening has a smooth edge and on the back, a lid-like structure, which, after flowering, closes the cavity.
§. 198.
GC. In many species, branches and leaves are arranged on the stem opposite each other, and cross-paired; in many others, they lack a specific arrangement, and often only the lower leaves are opposite, while the upper ones are not. Among our native species, there are neither shrubs nor trees.The flower and flower covering are irregular; the latter is variously split, but its lobes always align with the flower and do not bend flatly outwards.
The flower mostly has a lip-shaped opening, except in 283, where it is usually regular and flat, and in 284, 296, 297, where it takes on a more bell-shaped form. In the others, it is helmet-shaped and mask-like.
There are four stamens in two pairs, as in GB, except for 283, 294, and 295, where there are only two, and in 297, where there are three.
The young fruit carries a pollen pathway with a simple stigma and develops into a capsule, which usually splits from the top into two pieces, containing many seeds in one or mostly two chambers, sitting on a fruit-bearing bed that rises within the capsule.
Genera 283-291, 297 have two chambers in the capsule.
Genera 292-296 have only one chamber.
Genus 296, although it deviates somewhat from the main character of the class, seems to fit best here.
Genera 292-295 differ by their particular growth habits, and stems without leaves, which in 294 are found only at the root, in the others not at all, replaced instead by scales.
§. 199.
GD. This division is not natural in its entirety but contains many families that are.Genera 298-302 are still related to the previous division, mainly differing in the number of filaments, as they have five. Genera 298 and 301 also have somewhat irregular flowers, and together with 299, their filaments are bent away from the straight direction.
Genus 303 is closely related to the previous ones but differs by its fruit, which becomes a berry, and by its stamens, which bend towards each other and stick together at their anthers. The position of the flower on the stem is also remarkable, either above the angle between the leaf and stem, to the side, or opposite.
Genera 304, 305. The lobes of the flower are somewhat skewed to one side. The fruit consists of two pods that open inwards through a slit. In 305, they have fused into one, though separated at the top. The two stigmas are covered by the anthers in 305, while in 304, they are covered by a separate part of the flower. The leaves are opposite each other on the stem.
Genera 306-312 have a radially split flower with one stamen in each split. A round capsule without chambers, filled with a rounded body in which the seeds are enclosed. In 312, the flower is absent.
Genera 313-315 have a flower in a presentational plate shape, with bracts around their flower stems coming directly from the root. 313 has single flowers. In 314 and 315, they are in umbels.
Genera 316-318 have densely clustered flowers in a spike. The flower is four-parted and radially symmetrical. In 318, it has a tube that surrounds the fruit, with only the opening being radially symmetrical. In 316 and 317, no such tube is present, and the flower is attached to the upper edge of the fruit, which is located between the flower and its covering.
Genus 319 is related on one side to the preceding genera, and on the other side to 222-224. It is notable for its stem, which is bare of leaves and nourishes itself through suckers from other plants.
Genus 320 is related on one side to its preceding neighbors, and on the other side, it seems related to GE.
Genera 321, 322 have a four-parted flower with two stamens. Our native species of 322 has flowers with separate sexes and no covering.
§. 200.
GE. These are mostly perennial plants, some with persistent leaves, always with stems and scales on the stems of the flowers, which are usually clustered or in a spike. The stamens are located at the base of the fruit and are sometimes, as seen best in 328, 330, fused into a ring, which differentiates the one-leafed flowers of this class from all other one-leafed species in G. The stamens are either double or equal in number to the parts of the flower, and their anthers are mostly composed of a pair of tubes, which are most distinctly seen in 329, and in 323-327, they are still equipped with two outwardly pointing tips, from which the name of the class is derived. The flower covering in 323 surrounds the fruit at its base so that the flower appears to stand on the fruit, as in EE. In the others, it is only attached to the bottom of the fruit. In some species, the fruit is a berry with chambers, in others, a capsule with chambers, which can be counted externally by the grooves on the capsule. There is only one pollen pathway, but its stigma is sometimes divided, like the capsule. Genera 329-331 have a multi-leafed flower, which technically does not belong under G but cannot be separated from their relatives in GE. 323-328.In some flowers, which have an egg-shaped or barrel-shaped form, the stamens follow when the flower is removed, and seem to have their seat at the lowest edge, but it seems more natural to imagine that this ring is fused to the flower, as in HC. 353, 354, where a cylinder formed of stamens is fused with the flower. In these barrel-shaped flowers, the number of stamens is double the number of incisions in the flower, which is otherwise unheard of in one-leafed flowers.
Genus 328 has only five stamens with its five-parted fruit.
Genera 323-327 have a four-parted flower.
Genus 323 has the flower on the fruit.
Genera 323, 324 bear berries.
Genus 330 differs by its fruit, but its fused stamens, stem, and leaves compared to 327 show its relationship.
Genus 331 finds its place here when compared to 329, according to root, stem, and fruit.
§. 201.
HA. These plants generally have regular flowers, which are very similar to the one-leafed regular flowers in GA or GD, both in their shape. The difference lies mostly in the incisions: in the one-leafed flowers, the incision only divides the opening, while in these multi-leafed flowers, the incisions extend through the tube all the way to the base. Furthermore, in those plants where the stamens are present in double the number compared to the parts of the flower, half of these shorter stamens are attached to the nails of the flower petals, while the longer ones stand on the bottom of the fruit. Additionally, the clove-like flowers 332-337 share more similarity with 313-315, and the Alsine-like flowers 338-345 with 306-312.They are all herbs with opposite leaves without stems, and branches are arranged crosswise. Often, the stem divides continuously into two parts.
The young fruit has its own free base, arising from the tip of the stem and separated from the flower covering, on which the flower petals and stamens stand simultaneously. This base noticeably rises above the basin of the flower covering in some species of genera 332-337 as a small column. The fruit develops into a capsule with segments, chambers, and a small column for the seeds. There is sometimes a separation of sexes, but in fact, they are mostly imperfect hermaphrodites with a trace of the missing sex part.
Genera 332-338 have a cleft but one-leafed flower covering.
Genera 332-337 have clove-like flowers, except for 337, and usually a notched nail, often with an additional part between the tube and the opening, making a total of two sets of five stamens.
Genera 332-335 have three or five stamens.
Genera 336, 337 have only two stamens.
Genera 339-344 have a flower covering completely divided into leaves, and many of the petals are also split. Genus 344 has a four-parted flower. In general, they have stamens in double the number of the parts of the flower, though some species have only one set. The stamens number three, four, or five.
Genera 338, 345 seem to lack a distinct position.
§. 202.
HB. HC. Both divisions have capsules arranged in a ring around a common central point, but in HB, they are separate, while in HC, they are connected at a common area, forming a sort of simple fruit with chambers. Each capsule or chamber tapers towards the central point and opens along this slit. Genus 350 serves to connect both divisions with each other and with other classes. The area or small column, where the connected capsules meet, consists of filaments placed downward, which separate at the top and spread out into as many stigmas as there are capsules or chambers. The unconnected capsules each have their own filament, but it is placed on the side facing the central point, so the capsules are only slightly pressed together near the central point, resembling those that are connected at a column.HB. Has four, five, or six unconnected capsules, with two rows of unequal-length stamens, one row of which is attached to the flower petals. At the edge of the fruit base, on which the capsules sit, there is a gland-like structure under each capsule. In 348, there are stems with separated sexes, i.e., imperfect hermaphrodites. They have fleshy parenchymatous leaves, as do 351, and some species of 352, and genera 222, 223 also approach them in this regard. They carry their flowers in a flat cluster.
HC. Has connected capsules or chambers, with 350 lacking a column extending beyond the fruit, and the others 351-354 having such a column, which dissolves into a bush of stigmas at the top.
Genera 351-354. The stamens in these genera have grown together at the bottom, somewhat imperceptibly in 351 and 352, but more clearly in 353 and 354. They have leaves with ear-like structures on fairly long stems, which usually do not lie in the same plane as the leaf, but instead, the leaves are carried shield-like, and when entering the leaf, the nerves radiate from a central point.
Genera 351, 352. As mentioned, these have slightly fused stamens and completely separate flower petals.
Genera 353, 354. In this class, which is numerous in other parts of the world but only found in a few species in Northern Europe, the stamens have fused into a tube around the column, but they separate at the top, and the anthers are freely exposed. This tube widens at its base and connects with the nails of the flower petals, so that the flower with the stamen tube can be removed as a unified body.
§. 203.
HD-HF. In all these herbs, the base of the fruit is so independent of the flower structures that in all (except a few non-native species), both the floral envelope and the flower itself fall off shortly after blooming, and long before the fruit ripens. This circumstance makes the boundaries in the HD section between what should be called the calyx or corolla particularly unstable and unclear. See §. 59. This also raises the question in the same section of what should be called the flower or the side part, the corolla or the nectarium. The filaments have their position on the base of the fruit and no relation to the flower. Separation of sexes is extremely rare in this entire section, and there are no examples among our native species.They are all herbs with leaves in an indeterminate position, from one side to the other, without actual stems.
HD. They bear many fruits on their common fruit base, and each fruit tapers towards the middle of the fruit base, which forms the path for the pollen. These fruits are capsules in some species, opening from the inward-facing side, in others, they are bare seeds, or, if you like, capsules that do not open.
HD. Genera 355-359 have bare seeds.
Genus 355 has a four-petaled simple flower, namely not both a flower and floral envelope at the same time.
Genus 356 has a many-petaled simple flower.
Genera 357-359 have flowers and floral envelopes.
Genera 360-364 bear capsules.
In these 360-364, the already mentioned question arises: what should be called the floral envelope, flower, and side parts of the flower, calyx, corolla, nectarium? Namely, close to and between the filaments are variously shaped, tubular colored parts (except 360), several in a ring around the capsules in 361, 362, a few or only a pair next to each other inward or on the side of the fruit base facing the stem in 363, 364. On the outside, there are other colored parts or flower petals, in 361, 362 also arranged in a circular pattern, similarly shaped to rose petals, in 363, 364, however, differing in arrangement and shape, with one particularly serving as a covering for the so-called side parts. If one compares these side parts without prejudice to the flower petals of genera 358, 359, whose claw is also somewhat tubular in shape, one might not be unwilling to regard these so-called side parts, the nectarium, as the flower and the so-called flower as the floral envelope. Therefore, one must speak as follows:
Genus 360 has a simple flower or floral envelope without a flower.
Genera 361, 362 have a regular complete flower, a floral envelope made of rose-like petals, a flower made of hollow, tubular petals, 361 in an indeterminate number, 362 in a definite number.
Genera 363, 364 have an irregular complete flower, namely a pair of irregularly shaped flower petals on one side of the flower, and five also irregularly shaped petals of the floral envelope, one of which encloses the flower petals.
§. 204.
HE. HF. Have a single fruit per flower. This fruit is a capsule, often of considerable length, called a pod, and the seeds are attached to the sutures of the capsule segments. The number of these segments and their sutures is indefinite, usually two, and the fruit does not always open at its sutures, nor is it always divided into compartments along its entire length; the septa sometimes extend from the sutures only to a certain distance, without reaching the center or opposite suture. In general, the pollen path is imperceptible and insignificant, and the stigma is usually directly on the fruit, sometimes also divided like the capsule itself. The flower is regular (except 368, 369), with many petals. The floral envelope has two petals or two sets of two petals in different layers. The number of filaments is definite in some, indefinite in others.HE. Is distinguished from HF. on the one hand by the indefinite large number of filaments in 365-367, on the other hand by the two-petaled floral envelope in 366-369, as well as by the irregular flower in 368, 369, along with other differences.
Genus 365 has a juicy fruit or berry, with a groove at the suture.
Genus 366 has a long capsule or pod made of two segments.
Genus 367 has a round capsule, which is divided into many compartments inside, covered at the top by a multi-lobed permanent stigma like a shield, and under this shield, it opens to a certain width along its sutures.
Genus 368 has an irregular many-petaled flower, and two filaments, each with three anthers. The species in this genus are extremely varied in flower and fruit: one of our few native species has a seed in a round capsule.
Genus 369 also has an irregular five-petaled flower, five filaments, and a capsule with five segments.
§. 205.
HF. Plants with cross-shaped flowers. They bloom in a spike that does not terminate as usual with a point but instead ends in a flat bouquet, and during the blooming period, it lengthens as the lowest flowers of the bouquet gradually bloom. The leaves have a noticeably strong rib at the base, whose fibers often separate into strings, creating what are incorrectly called pinnate leaves, as this class particularly exhibits so-called layer-like leaves.The flower consists of four clove-shaped petals that are arranged crosswise or side by side, or rather in a rectangle, with two somewhat longer and two somewhat shorter sides. Occasionally, the flower petals facing the edge of the bouquet, especially in the outer flowers of the bouquet, are larger than the other pair of petals, so that the bouquet is starry, as with the umbrella flowers. The filaments and petals surround the fruit on its somewhat spongy or fleshy fruit base, similar to the umbrella flowers, and as they are sometimes sunken into hollows in the base, small glands appear between them as small hills. On each of the broader sides of the flower, there is a pair of filaments, and on each of the narrower sides, there is an unpaired filament, so that there are six filaments in total. The paired filaments are slightly longer than the unpaired ones, though this is often only an optical illusion, as the unpaired filaments are somewhat lower and often curved. The floral envelope has two pairs of leaves, where the ones above the unpaired filaments are somewhat lower in position and often droop downward, with a cutting edge upward.
The fruit has a short pollen path and a stigma divided into two lobes. It is long or short, a pod or a small pod, and otherwise varies in shape in many ways, usually divided into two compartments by a septum, which sometimes extends beyond the capsule segments. Sometimes the space is undivided, sometimes the segments do not open, and sometimes the pod breaks in transverse sections. In the small pods, the segments are often hollow and raised into a hump or knife-like ridge, so that the vertical cross-section through both segments is wider than the septum, which is said to be directed toward the segments, while conversely, it is parallel to them. The seeds hang alternately at both sutures, on both sides of the septum.
Genera 370-377 have long pods with regular segments without joints.
Genera 378-380 have jointed pods, with 380 having only one joint.
Genera 381, 382 have short pods that do not split into segments, with 381 being angular.
Genera 383-391 have small pods that split into two segments.
Genera 383-386 have thick, bubble-like small pods.
Genera 387-391 have flattened small pods.
Note: 383 and 391 are mistakenly swapped. 383 should be placed under the line before 387, and 391 should be placed above the line after 386.
§. 206.
HG. HH. Both are not natural divisions, and the genera placed under them mostly require comparison with many foreign plants to determine their correct position, which is generally difficult to establish.Genera 392-395 have a capsule with compartments, and their seeds are attached to the septa or the column.
Genera 396-398 have a capsule without septa, which in 398 opens entirely into three segments, while in 396 and 397, it only splits to a certain width at the top. The seeds are attached to the segments.
HH. These are trees and are very different from one another, except for the fact that the base of the ovary, the flower, and the filaments are more or less fleshy.
§. 207.
HI. With the exception of genus 418, which has no relatives in our region, this class of plants with pea-like flowers is very natural. Among our native species, there are few herbaceous plants and no trees, but some of these plants are found in this class. The stem bears its branches and leaves alternately, changing direction somewhat with each branch, most noticeably in herbs, and is angular. The leaves have noticeably long petioles with ears that are attached to the stem; they are sometimes simple, mostly pinnate, ending with an unpaired leaf, including the three-leafed varieties, or with a pair of leaves. In this case, the rib often extends into loops or forks. Each leaf has its own small petiole that extends through the leaf, often protruding slightly above the tip, dividing it into two equal parts, and giving off parallel veins at sharp angles. The flowers emerge from the angles between the leaf and the stem on individual pedicels or stalks, or at the ends of the branches, always in a half-hanging position. The floral envelope is single-petaled with an approximately bell-shaped space and usually five points along the edge. The flower and filaments originate from the floral envelope, but not as in section F, at the edge, but at the base of the cavity. The flower is a pea flower, which was already described in §. 64. The filaments are ten, of which usually nine are fused at their lower part, so that the upper part with the anthers is free, forming a closed sheath, with which the young fruit is surrounded, and the curvature of the filaments follows the shape, thus curving toward the banner. Sometimes, one filament, the topmost, is detached from the others in the sheath. The fruit is positioned at the tip of the petiole, which sometimes extends into the floral envelope, and along its back, a pollen path noticeably extends beyond the tip, often with a flat, hairy stigma. The fruit becomes a pod of various shapes, usually without partition, and the seeds hang at the upper broader suture, whose continuation, as previously mentioned, is the pollen path.Genera 403-407 have long, straight, more or less flat pods.
Genera 408-409 have a pod divided into two compartments along its length.
Genus 410 has a long cylindrical pod.
Genus 411 has a long segmented pod.
Genus 412 has a spirally twisted pod.
Genera 413-414 have very short pods, barely or not protruding from the floral envelope.
Genus 416 has a fluttering or splitting flower and usually simple leaves.
§. 208.
The intention with this eleventh section was to go further, but it could not proceed in an introduction beyond some explanation of the list contained in §. 146, and a summary explanation of the most important plant families occurring in Northern Europe. Only in the subsequent list of our native herbs is a closer determination of the so-called genera or smallest collections of species, or divisions of large families made. Meanwhile, since in §. 153 the summarized characteristics of the Linnaean genera are inserted, a comparison of the numbers from the list in §. 146 with the divisions of the method outlined in §. 153 has recently been added here, so that the characteristics of the genera can be quickly located.
1-11. Bc.
12-21. Bd.
21-31. Bb.
32-40. Ba.
41-47. ZC .
48. ABC.
49-55. ZC.
56. ZB.
57-67. ZC .
68. 69. ABA.
70-73. ZF.
74. ABA.
75. ZI.
76. ABB.
77. ZN.
78. XF.
79. ABA.
80. ZF.
81. 82. XF .
83. ZC .
84-90. ZF.
91-95. ΧΕ.
96. ABA.
97-101 . ABB.
102-104. ABA.
105. ZEb.
106. 107. ABA.
108. ABB.
109. 110. ABA.
111. ABB.
1.12, BC.
113. 114. ZA .
115. ABA .
116. ZD.
117. ABA.
118. ZA.
119. 120. ABA.
121. ZD.
122. ΖΗ.
123. ZF .
124. ABC.
125-127. ZEb.
128. ABC.
129. ABA.
130. ZK.
12-21. Bd.
21-31. Bb.
32-40. Ba.
41-47. ZC .
48. ABC.
49-55. ZC.
56. ZB.
57-67. ZC .
68. 69. ABA.
70-73. ZF.
74. ABA.
75. ZI.
76. ABB.
77. ZN.
78. XF.
79. ABA.
80. ZF.
81. 82. XF .
83. ZC .
84-90. ZF.
91-95. ΧΕ.
96. ABA.
97-101 . ABB.
102-104. ABA.
105. ZEb.
106. 107. ABA.
108. ABB.
109. 110. ABA.
111. ABB.
1.12, BC.
113. 114. ZA .
115. ABA .
116. ZD.
117. ABA.
118. ZA.
119. 120. ABA.
121. ZD.
122. ΖΗ.
123. ZF .
124. ABC.
125-127. ZEb.
128. ABC.
129. ABA.
130. ZK.
131. ABB.
132. ZL .
133. 134. ABB.
135. ZE .
136. ΖΗ .
137. ZL.
138-179. XDa.
180.181 . ZD.
182 , ZEf.
183. ZC.
184. ZD.
185-211 . ZEb.
212-214. ZD.
215. 216. ZEc.
217. 218. ZEa.
219. YAb.
220. ZB.
221. ZD.
222. 223. ΖΚ.
224. 225. ZEa
226. 227. XDb.
228. ABA.
229-234. ZM.
235. ZEa.
236-242. ZM.
243. ZEe.
244. 245. ZD.
246. 247. ΖΜ .
248. ZL.
249. ΖΗ.
250. ZL.
251. ZF.
252. ZD.
253-261 . ZEa.
262. 263. ZB .
264-267. YA.
268. ZB.
269-282. YA.
283. ZB.
284-293 . YA.
306-308. ZEa .
309. ZD.
310. ZG.
311-315. ZEa.
316. ΖΗ.
132. ZL .
133. 134. ABB.
135. ZE .
136. ΖΗ .
137. ZL.
138-179. XDa.
180.181 . ZD.
182 , ZEf.
183. ZC.
184. ZD.
185-211 . ZEb.
212-214. ZD.
215. 216. ZEc.
217. 218. ZEa.
219. YAb.
220. ZB.
221. ZD.
222. 223. ΖΚ.
224. 225. ZEa
226. 227. XDb.
228. ABA.
229-234. ZM.
235. ZEa.
236-242. ZM.
243. ZEe.
244. 245. ZD.
246. 247. ΖΜ .
248. ZL.
249. ΖΗ.
250. ZL.
251. ZF.
252. ZD.
253-261 . ZEa.
262. 263. ZB .
264-267. YA.
268. ZB.
269-282. YA.
283. ZB.
284-293 . YA.
306-308. ZEa .
309. ZD.
310. ZG.
311-315. ZEa.
316. ΖΗ.
294. 295. ZB.
296. ZC.
297. YA.
298-303. ZEa.
304.305. ZEb .
317-320. ZD.
321. ZB.
322. ABC.
323. ΖΗ.
324-326. ZK.
327. ΖΗ.
328. ZEa.
329. ZK.
330. ZEe.
331-337. ZK.
338. ZEe.
339-342. ZK.
343. ZEc.
344. ZD.
345. ΖΗ.
346. ZK
347. ZD.
348. ABB,
349. ZL.
350. ZEe.
351. ZK.
352-354. ΧΑ.
355-358 . ZN.
359. ZEf
360-367. ZN.
368. XB.
369. XDb.
370-391 . YB.
392. ΖΝ.
393. XC.
394. Z.G.
395. ZN.
396. ZEd.
397. ZL.
398. XDb.
399. ZF.
400. ZEa.
401. ABC.
402. ZN.
403-418. ХВ.
296. ZC.
297. YA.
298-303. ZEa.
304.305. ZEb .
317-320. ZD.
321. ZB.
322. ABC.
323. ΖΗ.
324-326. ZK.
327. ΖΗ.
328. ZEa.
329. ZK.
330. ZEe.
331-337. ZK.
338. ZEe.
339-342. ZK.
343. ZEc.
344. ZD.
345. ΖΗ.
346. ZK
347. ZD.
348. ABB,
349. ZL.
350. ZEe.
351. ZK.
352-354. ΧΑ.
355-358 . ZN.
359. ZEf
360-367. ZN.
368. XB.
369. XDb.
370-391 . YB.
392. ΖΝ.
393. XC.
394. Z.G.
395. ZN.
396. ZEd.
397. ZL.
398. XDb.
399. ZF.
400. ZEa.
401. ABC.
402. ZN.
403-418. ХВ.
Twelfth Section
§. 209.
In terms of its origins, herbal knowledge is very old, but its reliability and true form as a science were attained rather late. The reliability of the historical knowledge of plants, and therefore all knowledge of their usefulness, is based on the efforts of botanists to compare plants with one another, to set characteristics for each species based on their conspicuous form, to arrange them according to their similarities or differences, and to present a convenient plan of organization to learners. This was a task that was only undertaken after the general revival of all sciences in Europe, and perhaps the necessity for this task was due to the prior complete decline of scientific knowledge. Thus, just as with all history of human events, we must distinguish between the times of history preserved by tradition and the times of thoroughly written history flowing from verifiable sources. If one knows a plant by its character, then one knows it thoroughly: if one knows it because it has been shown to them and its name has been told to them, then it is only a traditional knowledge. If one has not even had the opportunity to have it shown to them, then there is no way to acquire knowledge of it, and in these circumstances, both learned and unlearned people were before the invention of the true foundation of the entire science.§. 210.
Herbology certainly shares its origins with medicine, and both can be traced back to the times when, in ancient Greece, under a mild climate, the sick were brought to public places to seek the advice of anyone who had counsel to give. In fact, this was the best way, in a matter where experience had to be the first teacher, as it always will be the best, to collect experiences which the wisest would record and preserve as the foundation of the emerging science. From this common origin, herbal knowledge was regarded as a branch of medicine and mainly left to the physicians to pursue, and even in our times, this remains the prevailing opinion and practice. The sick, especially those who are not treated according to already established methods of healing, reach out in their distress to any remedies that seem to offer help, and naturally, they first look to the plant kingdom. Thus, it was not long before the plants that gained fame for their healing powers grew into a noticeable number, thereby imposing on physicians the necessity to focus primarily on the plant kingdom. Gradually, it was also possible to consider this kingdom from other perspectives than merely as something useful to physicians, and somewhat, Pliny and, in the last century, Rajus did this. However, the primary purpose of botany has remained the use of plants for medicinal purposes. The plants that people engage with in agriculture and various branches of civic professions represent, each of these occupations taken separately, only a modest number in comparison to the medicinal plants that have become famous, deservedly or undeservedly, and it is only in our times that we begin to approach the arts and professions that nourish us or make life comfortable on the footing of a science. Only in the eyes of one who reflects on the influence of herbal knowledge in all of these professions and industries, and the vast number of plants that are used for so many particular purposes, does herbal knowledge acquire the worth and rank of a science in its own right.§. 211.
The inconveniences of relying on tradition in herbal knowledge have necessarily been felt throughout the ages, but they were felt without being recognized. In the writings of the Greeks and Romans, there is no trace of the thought of linking the memory of plants and their names to the unchanging characters that nature has impressed upon them, nor any trace of a method for this purpose. Not every division of a work into books and chapters, nor any arrangement of thoughts and materials, which certainly no reasonable man would write a book without, deserves the name of a botanical method, for at least the method should aim to lead to the recognition of the unknown. But the aim of the ancients was not so much to establish historical knowledge, but, with the assumption of this knowledge, to teach the usefulness of plants. Only the lesser-known plants did they take the trouble to describe, without regard to the entire plant kingdom, and without knowing what we have learned in modern times, that such isolated descriptions, without such consideration, are of no use. These descriptions were, in fact, already of no use in their time, and Galen declared it a futile effort to try to convey knowledge of plants with words, saying that the only way to gain knowledge was for a teacher to show and name the plants. Pliny, on the other hand, recounts how Cratevas and others had plants painted, and wrote their uses under the paintings, but he considered these paintings inadequate and demanded descriptions, though in his writings, he followed no more order than the others that would deserve to be called a method. Since the descriptions of plants in the writings of the Greeks and Romans were already incomprehensible in the time of their authors, they must have been even more so for the Arabs, who, at the fall of the Roman Empire, preserved the sciences that had been entirely lost in the Western lands for some time.§. 212.
When the interest in the sciences was revived in the Western world, the first thing in herbal knowledge was to focus on the writings of the ancients. Amid intense disputes over their interpretation, arguments arose about the nature of those disputes where all sides were wrong. The names of plants mentioned in these writings were hastily assigned to plants seen around them, without considering the natural fact that different countries produce different plants, and that there is a noticeable difference between Greece in Europe and Asia, as well as between the Western lands, and particularly the northern parts of Europe where these interpreters lived. This hasty application of names from the ancient writings, coupled with an even more careless use of the information about the uses of the herbs, filled the writings about medicinal plants with a great deal of testimony, which is more than useless, because it is always better to have no information than false information. Without a doubt, Tournefort, on his journey through the homeland of the ancient Greeks, saw all their 500 or 600 plants for which names could be found, among a much larger number. But with certainty, we do not know more than a tenth of them.§. 213.
In the meantime, the focus shifted from the writings of the ancients to the book of nature, and people began to search for herbs in nature with zeal and diligence, not only in Europe, but also in other parts of the world, which improved navigation had opened new routes to. However, those who had to search for herbs in nature could not yet be expected to develop systems. Their attention, when observing the plants, was generally not focused on the parts and circumstances that form the foundation of botanical systems. Everywhere, the lifestyle of a traveler is not suitable for developing a system.§. 214.
Cæsalpinus, the predecessor of Harvey in the discovery of the circulation of blood and the father of botanical methods, was a professor in Pisa and proudly mentioned the botanical gardens he had been able to explore. As a man of deep thought, the Aristotelian philosophy he practiced infused him with a taste for systems and a certain spirit of order, which cannot be denied in this philosophy. The gardens provided him the opportunity to leisurely and comfortably compare many herbs that he saw growing before his eyes. Traces of a systematic thought can be found in Fabius Columna, from a distinguished Roman family, and in Conrad Gesner, a man who was truly an ornament of his time, and who, with his all-encompassing genius, spared no effort or personal expenditure. He had his own garden and kept artists working for him in his house, so from his entire setup, it can be concluded that he had nothing less than a systematic work in mind. However, Cæsalpinus is the first to have executed a system in his 16 books on plants, published in Florence in 1583 in 4to, and it is a very profoundly conceived system. His entire thorough way of thinking is revealed in the preface of his book to Francesco Medicis. "It is," he says, "a sad fate of humanity that after the decline of the sciences, we must start again from the beginning; we must start with the large number of herbs as we would with an army, we must divide them into troops, for that is what all science consists of, bringing similar things together and separating dissimilar ones. Without that, there is no progress; a description, however careful it may be, if it is made without regard to the genus to which a plant belongs, renders the plant it refers to almost unrecognizable. The division into genera supports memory, facilitates presentation, and helps in recognizing the uses of the herbs, for those belonging to a genus generally have similar properties. The genera, however, must be based on the differences that nature has imposed in the plants, not on secondary considerations and circumstances outside of the plants."§. 215.
Among the first to follow in Cæsalpinus's footsteps is Joachim Jung, who only lacked the opportunity and the more favorable times, as were available later in Germany, to do the same as Cæsalpinus, for in sharpness of mind and systematic spirit, he was no less than him. Apart from Jung, Cæsalpinus had no successors in his undertaking for a significantly long time, and it is especially notable that the authors of general histories of plants, such as Dalechamp and the two Bauhins, Caspar and Johann, did not take an interest in it. Particularly Caspar Bauhin, who perhaps saw ten times as many plants as Cæsalpinus in his lifetime, must have felt the necessity of method as superfluous during his forty years of work on his Pinax. This Pinax, in which Bauhin collected the various names of herbs from all writers up to his time, is actually a preliminary register for the large work he intended to publish under the title Theatrum botanicum. Although only a small part of this work has been published, the register alone deserves the thanks of all times as a concordance of all writers up to his time.§. 216.
Robert Morison, a Scotsman, a man somewhat preoccupied with his own merits, was luckier than Joachim Jung and found in Gaston, Duke of Orleans, a powerful and exceptionally favorable patron of science, under whose patronage he worked for many years in the garden at Blois. After the Duke's death, he became a professor of botany in Oxford. About a hundred years after Cæsalpinus, whom he never mentions, he introduced a system of plant classification in a work, the first part of which is missing, the second of which he himself published in 1680, and the third was published posthumously by Bobart, containing four and a half thousand plants, with illustrations that, admittedly, are not particularly remarkable. His method is essentially a mixed method, based primarily on the observation of the fruit, but it also includes other features that do not depend on the process of fruiting. It is evident that there was no fixed plan at the start of his work, and it lacks a clearly coherent key.§. 217.
From that time, a large number of different methods quickly emerged, gaining esteem in proportion to the degree to which their authors carried them out and established the plant kingdom in detailed works based on these methods. Among all, Johann Ray, an English theologian, deserves the praise of all times for being a man of an immensely valuable character, who strove to make herbal knowledge useful for all purposes, not just medicinal ones. With extraordinary diligence, he had the remarkable humility to acknowledge that one must leave room for the always-expected improvements in natural history and not be too hasty in decisions. A man of a slightly different mindset, but also a valuable man, August Quirin Rivinus, gave the almost only example of a strict, unmixed arbitrary method, where, although not the chosen foundation—namely the regularity and irregularity of the parts of the flower—he did adhere to the adopted principles of the method, and his spirit of order and zeal for science, evidenced by his beautiful illustrations, which he produced at his own expense despite hardship, deserves praise. More will be said about Tournefort, with whom a new century and a new era begins.§. 218.
Various reproductive organs were gradually adopted as the foundation of methods, and just as in the physiology of the human body, where one part of the brain is sometimes assigned as the seat of the soul, so each author of a method claimed the part of the plant structure on which their method was based as the most important and declared their method the best. Many saw such a method as nothing less than something that should change the entire science. Disputes arose, and everyone argued with the same weapons, showing the shortcomings of each other's methods and their contradictions to nature, without realizing that the outcome of all their mutual objections was that each of these methods, according to the arbitrary methods of nature, had its own special usefulness, but none needed to be considered the plan of nature.§. 219.
With this peaceful mindset, all methods and proposals for methods that have increased to a great number up to our time must be viewed. These include original drafts based on new observations of certain aspects of plant structure, combinations of several previously mentioned methods, attempts at natural methods or approaches to the plan of nature. With these views, one does no wrong to any author but is inclined to give each their due credit. Two particular attempts to approach the plan of nature in important works are especially noteworthy: Mr. Royen's Prodromo Floræ Leydensis and Mr. Haller's Enumeratione Stirpium Helveticarum. It would be very unjust to hold against them the imperfections they themselves acknowledged and the impossibility of maintaining all similarities of plants in a cohesive method. One must not focus so much on the remaining path but rather on the steps they have truly taken towards the plan of nature, and accept their discoveries and the prospects for further progress with thanks. This same just attitude must be held towards Mr. Linné's Fragmenta Methodi Naturalis and Mr. Adanson's Familles des Plantes.§. 220.
In general, the foundations of methods were taken from the different parts of reproduction, and whereas previously, those who were the first to search for plants in nature usually overlooked or only superficially considered these delicate and not always visible parts of their structure, they were granted such outstanding value by the founders of methods that it was believed, as still the prevailing opinion holds, that only these parts, to the exclusion of the rest, could and must be taken as the basis of all true methods. However, one has early and constantly felt the chains that this preconceived opinion imposed on oneself, and the beautiful characteristics, the clear similarities that nature has placed in the less regarded parts of plant structure, could not go unnoticed. Morison's method has some, Ray's method many recognized natural classes that have received very fortunate names based on such circumstances. Magnol, in his 1689 book Familiæ Plantarum per Tabulas Dispositæ, explicitly opposed this prevailing opinion and doubted that methods could not be derived from every part of the plant, for example, from the first seed leaves. Boerhaave and even Tournefort often, under the characteristics of the genera, did not overlook this feature, and in the Ordinibus in Mr. Linné's Fragmenta Methodi Naturalis, one will hardly find the characteristics elsewhere than in the entire structure.§. 221.
With Joseph Pitton Tournefort, whom France rightfully regards as its ornament, and with the beginning of the present century, a new epoch can rightly be started. It was not enough for him to be a founder of a method, like so many others, and to classify the plant kingdom into major classes or higher genera; he set out to create a system that extended down to the lower or so-called true genera, and to fix such genera and their names for the plants for all time, both in words and illustrations. "In botany," says Tournefort, "it is necessary, so to speak, to collect similar plants in clusters and unite them into genera: all those which share a common characteristic, by which they essentially differ from all other plants, make up a genus; each of these, united under one genus, will still show something special and unique, and all those that do so should be considered distinct species." For him, the concept of genus preceded the concept of species in the order of his thoughts, and the latter should be derived from the former, whereas it might be more natural to say: plants of a species are those that have originated from each other and produce others like them. If different species, despite their differences, share something similar that distinguishes them from all other plants, then these species can be united into a genus. The upper genera, as they arise from the methods, were too broad for Tournefort, and therefore inconvenient, their characteristics too verbose, and the dissimilarities between the plants arranged within them too great. Thus, he first thought of the genera, and last of the method. He sought first his clusters in the wide nature, which he had the opportunity to investigate in particular under the protection of the great, with a free choice guided solely by nature. After he had collected enough of them, about 600 in number, he then looked for a way to arrange them into a convenient order. His method, in which the flower comes first in consideration, is a mixed method.§. 222.
His genera, even more than his method, found widespread approval, for now botany seemed to have become easy; it seemed that one could avoid the overwhelming recognition of the enormous quantity of plants, as one only needed to learn 600 genera. Thus, it became so convenient to give a notion of a plant with just one word, the genus name, as the few species are easy to distinguish once someone has kindly taken the trouble to establish the genera. Soon after the publication of his Institutiones Rei Herbariæ, Tournefort brought many previously unknown herbs from the East, and Plümier brought others from the West Indies. Ray adopted Tournefort's genera, as did Boerhaave in the catalogue of the rich Leiden Garden, and thus Tournefort's genera received powerful support from the large number of organized plants.§. 223.
Some thirty years after Tournefort, Sir Linnaeus undertook the same work for the entire plant kingdom, continuing it for nearly thirty years, and doubling the number of genera. Since Tournefort's time, a large number of new plants from all parts of the world had come to light, and Sir Linnaeus decided to examine and investigate the entire plant kingdom from a new perspective. There had always been talk of differences in gender among plants, but based on obscure and incorrect ideas. Rudolph Jacob Camerarius discovered this in the past century; Burchhard, a doctor from Brunswick, took it up at the beginning of the present century with the intention of creating a method based on the parts of fructification, where the difference in gender is based on the stamens and pollen tubes. Boerhaave also observed these often neglected parts in his determination of genera. But Sir Linnaeus created a system based on the difference of gender with the utmost care and immortalized it through his general catalog of the plant kingdom. However, this system, in and of itself, as an arbitrary botanical method, is probably considered by its founder as the least of his merits. Much greater merits for science include the improvement of the language of the art, the systematic form of science, the care and precision in the observations and descriptions of plants, and above all, the incredibly laborious creation of a general catalog of the entire plant kingdom. Considering his similar works and merits in other areas of natural history, Sir Linnaeus must be admired as an ornament of our times, and no difference in opinions should diminish the respect owed to him. "The genera," says Sir Linnaeus, "like Tournefort, must not depend on any system; rather, in their determination, the entire fructification must be considered together, the parts of which only come into consideration individually in the methods; in this way, according to nature, genera can serve all and any system."§. 224.
The establishment of genera would have fully benefited science if they could only be fixed unchangeably, but since this is not possible, the establishment of genera becomes the true source of the multitude of names, to the undeniable detriment of science and the ever-repeated objection against it. Species are determined by nature, but genera are left to human will. Even though a founder of genera may claim to follow nature and believe that undeniable similarities are before him, the exact determination of the boundaries and stages of those similarities always ultimately depends on arbitrary decision. This leads to the divergence of genera established by different authors, and because each author gives names to his genera and assigns species to them, the necessary diversity in nomenclature arises, without even mentioning other causes of change in nomenclature. Thus, a Tournefortian complains that he must relearn when using Linnaean works, and the Linnaean will have the same complaint after 40 or 50 years, if in that time the number of known plants increases as it did between Tournefort and Linnaeus, and then someone else sets out to rework the genera of the entire plant kingdom. But for the lover of plant knowledge, who does not have the intention or time to make it his main occupation, the diversity of genera and the multitude of names become a deterrent, and the widespread expansion of science, through which it should be beneficial to all, is hindered. These inconveniences, arising from the variability of genera, have been sufficiently felt, and two opposing proposals have been given to remedy them: on the one hand, to give genera a large scope to reduce the number of names for them, and on the other hand, to establish many genera to prevent changes in their names. However, neither of these proposals solves the fundamental problem inherent in the use of genus names, and it can only be remedied through the introduction of individual, independent names.§. 225.
From these considerations, the following epochs in the history of botany emerge:Epoch. Ancient history, up to the restoration of the sciences in the West. Times of tradition.
Epoch. Up to Cæsalpinus. Times of the interpreters of the ancients and the beginning of new descriptions, still without method.
Epoch. Up to Tournefort. Establishment of arbitrary methods with a tendency to form sects.
Epoch. From Tournefort to the latest period. Establishment of genera.
Epoch. Recent times, for the last 30 years. New establishment of genera by Sir Linnaeus. Attempts at natural methods. The free or eclectic way of thinking.
§. 226.
The fate of herb knowledge, like that of all sciences dependent on increasing experience, is closely tied to the currents of the world, as its superiority lies in the number of plants discovered, the discovery and convenient examination of which depends on the world’s movements. It assumed the form of a science when botanical gardens began to be established; for without the opportunity to compare plants fresh and throughout their entire duration in such gardens, one would hardly be able to devise methods or recognize the similarities of plants. Although nearly all public botanical gardens, by their foundation, are actually dedicated to medicinal herbs, all plants in general have found their place in these gardens, and botanists have, as is appropriate, not been confined to such narrow limits.§. 227.
Through the discovery of a new part of the world and new lands in previously known parts, through trade expanded by improved shipping, through the establishment of European colonies in other parts of the world, and through some explicitly undertaken journeys in favor of nature and its works, the number of plants known up to today has increased to approximately 7,320 species, according to the latest edition of Sir Linnaeus' catalog, Species Plantarum, whose first edition from 1753 contained about 5,900 species. Among these 7,320 plants, 680 are cryptogams.By comparing the following four catalogs—Linnaeus' Flora Svecica, Hudson’s Flora Anglica, Jacquin’s Flora Vindobonensis, and Gouan's Flora Montpellierensis—we find that, excluding cryptogams, they collectively contain about 2,150 species. Each contains approximately the following: Flora Svecica 929, Flora Anglica about 1,100, Flora Vindobonensis about 1,060, Flora Montpellierensis about 1,600, and about 700 species are common to all four, thus mainly occurring throughout Europe. Therefore, one could probably estimate the total number of European plants at around 3,000, about one twenty-fifth of the entire plant kingdom as known up to today. If we extend this from Europe to the whole globe, and from the number of European plants to the number of plants that might be found in other parts of the world, if they were equally thoroughly and carefully studied, it seems unlikely that we would know more than half of the plants created.
§. 228.
Not only in terms of the number of species, but also with regard to the forms and various modifications of the vegetative structure, we still do not know much more than half of the plant kingdom. Nature has restricted certain forms to specific regions of the earth and climatic zones, so that in other areas, one finds either no plants of such a form or only a few species as single examples of such a form. For example, no plant from the palm genus is native on this side of the Mediterranean Sea; of 124 species from the mallow genus, only 14 are European; of 114 species from the legume class without pea-like flowers, only two are European; however, the umbelliferous plants, numbering 200 species, have about 20 European species, and only seven or eight are native to regions between the Tropics. The same is true for the class with four-petaled cross-shaped flowers, if one excludes the genus Cleome, which, with a similar distribution, follows the same pattern as the umbelliferous plants, and so on. Even when a natural class spans various climates, often the species that are widely separated from each other are only similar in the main characteristics of the class, such as Borbonia and Afpalathus with the other plants bearing pea-like flowers.§. 229.
When considering this, one should not be surprised that botanists have not yet been able to organize all plants into a coherent system, but rather, one should recognize their diligent effort and sharp insight in the classification into natural classes. A botanist who only knew a few species from the mallow genus in northern Europe would hardly think to form a new class from these few species, but would instead try to place them in other classes that they do not fit into. Similarly, it is not surprising that the genera in the generally recognized classes are so variably defined by botanists and that every significant increase in new plants suddenly brought to light, for example from the eastern parts of the Russian Empire, through botanical expeditions, causes changes in the genera and their boundaries. However, it does not follow from this that it is too early to attempt to define every single genus with the precision necessary when naming the plants based on their genus, especially when the boundaries of these genera are not yet fully understood. For what use are names for ideas if their constancy cannot be guaranteed?§. 230.
We strive to understand plants so that we can use them, and thus, it is natural to reflect on the relationship of fundamental botany to this great goal. Although this is not the place for a history of our understanding of the utility of plants, nor for a history of our understanding of their life and growth, we can observe that if we count all the plants that have become notable for their supposed utility, it is likely we would not gather more than about a tenth of the entire plant kingdom. And how many uses are not merely claimed and unproven, especially among medicinal plants, which make up two-thirds of the supposedly useful plants? Indeed, fundamental botany would still be necessary for the one-tenth of the plants that are genuinely useful, even if the other nine-tenths were entirely useless. And if we are to judge the purposes of the plant kingdom, we must not see ourselves as the center of all things, although it is certainly not credible that the usefulness of plants, whether as a near or distant purpose of their existence, has been entirely discovered or exhausted. Thus, the question arises as to how far fundamental botany, as it is practiced, serves the achievement of the great goal of the entire plant knowledge.§. 231.
The discovery and confirmation of the utility of plants is the work of experience. Professional botanists, having already laid the foundation for historical knowledge, are typically far from the opportunities for firsthand experience, and they are few in number. Therefore, it is essential that the historical knowledge be spread among those who engage with plants in various fields of human life. The lack of such widespread knowledge is particularly evident in the economic writings of our time across all nations.§. 232.
How can such widespread knowledge be expected when fundamental botany is presented only in Latin and not in the vernacular languages? Nothing prevents this from being done: one can retain the Latin names for the plants, which botanists already use, if only the technical terms, the descriptions, and the entire presentation of the science are given in the local language. The Latin names must be kept for the sake of convenience in comparing the various names in different languages, allowing one nation to understand another through these common terms.§. 233.
It is necessary to lead the plant enthusiasts, who cannot make the study of plants their main work, primarily to the recognition of the natural classes that appear in the region where they live. It would be desirable if all so-called Florae and Horti were organized accordingly. These, the naturally determined similarities, deserve to be engraved in memory, but all artificial classes created through arbitrary methods are mere creations of imagination and will. Botanists must eventually come to an agreement on the natural classes, and there are not so many that it should be difficult to remember them. However, the superiority of one arbitrary method over another can be endlessly debated, and there are many of them, with numerous divisions and subgroups within them.§. 234.
However, one will never be able to fully discover and specify the characteristics of the natural classes if one persists in the preconceived notion that only the reproductive parts must serve as the foundation for true systems. Instead, one must select the similarities in the entire organic structure and take them where one finds them, where nature has placed them, and one will find more than one currently believes if botanists seriously set out to examine the other parts with as much care as the reproductive parts. These parts are usually only visible at a certain time in the life of a plant, while the other parts are always visible.§. 235.
The arbitrary methods should be considered as a framework for a building, not yet the building itself. They are, especially for beginners, indispensable for finding unknown herbs, and for this purpose, one should only add an index to a directory organized according to natural classes, in which the plants of the directory are strictly arranged according to the laws of an arbitrary method, and which refers back to the directory. One does well to add several of these indexes to such a directory. If one teaches a lover of botany about the true value of arbitrary methods and shows him how he can understand and use them without being bound to any one method, he will not be discouraged by the multitude of methods, as currently happens.§. 236.
When one hears botanists complain about changes in nomenclature, it is not surprising that lovers of botany complain and lose interest in botany. However, these changes are unavoidable if each plant is to carry the name of the genus to which a botanist assigns it. Shouldn't the well-intended suggestion in §. 141 and following be realized? All genus names (of both upper and lower genera, generis summi & subalterni) should be regarded merely as technical terms.§. 237.
Moreover, there are more inconveniences in the usual use of genus names and the definitions of genera, such as the fact that the concepts of the genera are often omitted and assumed in the directories, especially when large genera, which contain many species, are concerned. The definition of the genus is often based only on a few major species, and not all species fit in all respects.§. 238.
One can never do too much for the determination of species, for they are creatures of nature, and their correct determination is the basis of everything. For this, illustrations are indispensable, descriptions or illustrations in words are also necessary, but one can do one without leaving out the other. A farmer will never get to know the grasses from Scheuchzer's Agrostographia and will not easily find it convenient to read their descriptions in it. It is true that the engravings are costly, but for the well-to-do lover of botany, the shortest and most pleasant way is the cheapest, and the less wealthy, who can see the illustrations in the richer editions, always finds with pleasure that many uncertainties are resolved by their sight, which remain in the descriptions.§. 239.
Descriptions and illustrations are equally necessary. What an important and pleasant gift it would be if we were to receive two such volumes, as the first itself constitutes, in addition to Linnaeus' Pinax, with descriptions of all species, as some already appear in this Pinax. The so-called specific names are too short for descriptions (for they are actually that), long descriptions tire, and are not read. Their appropriate scope and brevity, with sufficient clarity, are maintained if they are made with respect to the relationships of the plants, and only the peculiar properties of each species are mentioned. Who knows these relationships better than the author of such a Pinax?Thirteenth Section.
Announcement of Botanical Writings,
§. 240.
Detailed directories and information about botanical writings of all kinds can be found in the following books.Familles des Plantes , par Adanfon. T. I.
Hermanni Boerhaave methodus ſtudii medici emaculata & acceſſionibus locupletata ab Alberto ab Halier. Amſt. 1751. 2 Vol. 4to. in Vol. 1. p. 156-241 .
Alberti Halleri Enumeratio Stirpium Helvetiæ , poſt præfatio- nem , pag. 15-39.
Caroli Linnæi Bibliotheca botanica , Amſtelod. 1736. Hal. 1747. 8vo.
Ejusd. Bibliotheca Cliffortiana , in Horto Cliffortiano poſt Præfationem.
Der Haußvater , ate Band. Auct. Otto von Munchhausen.
Bibliotheca botanica congeſta aJoa. Francifco Segvierio. Hag. Com. 1740. 4to. &
Supplementum in FloraVeronenfis Tomo 2do.
Chriſtoph Jacob Trew in Præfatione ad Cent. I. &. II. Her-
barii Blackwelliani editionis Norimbergenfis Eiſenbergeri.
The purpose here is not to go further than simply listing those writings which serve to promote the historical fundamental knowledge of herbs, and which are frequently cited; however, writings concerning the physiology of plants and their cultivation, as well as the doctrine of the usefulness of herbs, since these parts of plant knowledge are not included in the current intention, can only be briefly mentioned, and only a few.
On physiology and cultivation.
Recherches ſur l'uſage des feuilles dans les plantes , par Char- les Bonnet , Götting. 1754. 4to.Scriptores rei rufticæ veteres latini , curanteJo. Matth. Gesne- ro , Lipf . 1735. 4to. 2 Vol.
Nehem. Grew Anatomia plantarum , Lond. 1682. 12mo.
La Statique des Vegetaux & l'analyſe de l'eau par Hales, tra- duite de l'anglois par de Buffon. Paris 1735. 4to.
La Phyſique des arbres pardu Hamel. Paris 1758. 2Vol. 4to.
Elemens d'Agriculture parduHamel. Paris 1762. 2Vol. 8vo.
Linnai Amœnitates Academica.
Marcelli MalpighiiAnatome plantarum feparatim &in operibus. Lond. 1686. Fol.
Philipp Miller's Gardiners Dictionary. 7. Ed. Lond. 1759. f . Id. abridged 5. Ed. Lond. 1763.
Id. Germanice , Nurnb. 1750.57.58. f . 3. Vol.
Christian Reichards Land , und Garten Schak , Erfurth 1753. 6. Theile. 8vo.
Zur Lehre vom Nutzen :
Thomas Bartholinus de medicina Danorum domeſtica. Hafn . 1666. 8vo.Olaus Borrichius de uſu plantarum indigenarum. Hafniæ 1688. 8vo.
Joh, de Buchwald SpecimenMedico - practico -botanicum. Hafn. 1720. 4to.
Henr. Jo. Nepom. Crantz Materia medica & chirurgica. Viennæ 1762 .
Samuelis Dale Pharmacologia. Lugd. B. 1739. 4to.
Balthasar Erhardts seconomische Pflanzenhistorie. Ulm 1762. 12. Band. 8vo.
Stephani Franciſci Geofroi Tractatus deMateria medica, Paris 1741. 3. Vol . 8vo.
Alberti Halleri Enumeratio Stirpium Helvetiæ. f .
Traité des arbres & arbuſtes, par du Hamel.
Hiſtory of the Materia Medica byJohn Hill . Lond. 1751. 4tr.
an Experimental Hiſtory of the Materia medica by Will. Le- wis. Lond. 1761. 4to.
Caroli Linnæi Materia Medica . Amſt. 1749. 8vo.
Ej. Amœnitates Academica. Vol. I-VI. 8vo.
Ej . Itineraria, Oelandico - Gotlandicum, Weſtgothicum, Scanic.
Simonis Pauli Flora Danica , Hafniæ 1648. 4to
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Pharmacopæa Wirtenbergica. f .
Jo. Raji Hiſtoria plantarum.
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§. 242.
Classification of the cited writings.
A. Lehrbücher. Inftitutiones.B. Systeme. Syſtemata.
C. Bestimmung der Gattungen. Generum Defini- tiones.
D. Allgemeine Verzeichnisse über das Pflanzenreich mit Nomenclatur. Pinaces. E. Beschreibungen der Pflanzen aus dem ganzen
Reiche überhaupt. Hiftoriæ plantarum generales.
EA. Die Alten, oder vor dem Verfall der Wissenschaften in den Abendländern. Patres.
EB. Die Neuen, nach Wiederherstellung der Wisenschaften ; Originale. Inventores .
EC . Copien. Collectores.
F. Beschreibungen und Verzeichnisse der Pflanzen gewisser Länder und Gegenden , oder Gärten.
FA . Gewisser Gegenden. Floræ.
FB. Gewisser Gärten. Horti,
G. Beschreibungen gewisser Classen, und einzelner auserlesener Pflanzen.
GA . Gewisser Classen.
GB. Einzelner Kräuter.
H. Reisebeschreibungen. Itineraria.
I. Abbildungen . Iconographi.
IA . In Holzschnitten. Tabulæ ligneæ.
IB. Kupferstichen. Tabulæ æneæ.
IC . Ausgemahlten Stichen. Tabulæ pitæ.
A. 3.98.106.107.128.173.177.212. В. 3. 26. 36. 70.79.85.90.108.109.120.130.143. 151.152.174.177.183.184.185.187.212.222.
C. 3.53.79.85. * 94. 110. 129. 144. 161. 167. 212.
D. 13. 111.
ΕΑ. 56. 68. 138. 139. 165.* 210.
ΕΒ . 14.15.16.36.37-40.52-57-63- 36.37-40-52-57.63.66.67.89.90.111.
EC. 124. 138. 146. 152. 157.176.183.184.185. 207. 215. 226.
FAA. Asia . 8.9.32.71.76.84.99.155.165.182.188. 190. 198.
FAB. Africa. 7.8.31.198.219.
FAC. Amerika. 30. 39.50.62.77.88.94.95.126. 135. 141. 164. 165.167.168.169.170.200.201 . 213.
Z. FAD. Europa.
ZA. Dånnemark , Norwegen , Schweden , Preussen , Rusland. 9-34-58.71.73.91.102.103.113 . 114.115.117.118.119.127.136.159. 172. 181.186.204.
ZB. Großbrittanien. 93. 163. 179. 199.
ZC. Deutschland , Niederlande und andre angränzende Lande. 25.45.51.53.72.82.96. 101. 104. 105. 134. 142. 189. 205. 209.220.227.
ZD. Frankreich , Spanien. 11.64.65.74.75.78 . 126. 131. 149.175.191.195.214.218.
ZE. Italien , und die Schweiz. 5.6.11.23.24.79.80. 150. 171. 194. 197.225.
FB. .20.26.35.38.46.54.61.74.82.92. 112. 120. 132. 145. 146.148.158.160, 180, 187.202. 211.222.223.2 227.
GA. 17.18.21.22.27.55.69.83.150.153.159. 169. 183.184.185.192.193.221.
GB. 1: 2. 6. 10. 12. 23. 24. 28.29.33.35.42.43.44 . 47.48.51.59.60.81.97.122.137. 140. 141. 154. 161. 162.163.217.
Η. 58.62.84.99.117.118.119.126.136.155.198.
IA. 14. 15. 16. 37.38.40.41. 52. 57.63.66.67.83 . 123. 138. 139. 156.157.159.171.207.208. 209,215.
IB. 9.11.20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32.34. 39.46.47.48.50.54.55.67.68.71.79.83. 86.87.90.95.96. 112. 122. 137. 140. 147. 152.154.158.162.163.166.167.168.169. 170.175.182.183.184.185.188.196.201 . 212.218.221.226.
IC. 21.22. 27.39.59.60.62.68.92.100. 137. 141. 147.192.224.
First Appendix.
Alphabetical Directory of Botanical Terminology and Expressions.
Abart , Spielart. 108. Varietas.
Abfällige Merkmale. 124. Nota Defectiva. Abgeründetes Blat , ist bandsdrmig mit einer runden Spike.
Ablang , elliptisch , etliche mal seine Breite lang.
Aabstehend , patens , Blat, Ast oder Stiel, unter weitgesperrten
Winkel.
Abtheilungsweg bey Methoden. 120.
Adern. 33 .
Aehre . Spica. 36 .
Aehrgen , Spicula. 36. Der Grasse. 64,
Alpen. 93 .
Anhshen der Hügel. 94.
Anlage der Blüthe. 87.
Ansehen. Habitus. 84.
Art. Species, 108.
Aufkeimen , placentatio. 86 .
Augen , [. Knoſpen.
Ausgehöhlt , finuatum , mit einer merklich tiefen , nicht weit offenen, krumlinichten Bucht.
Ausgeschweift , emarginatum , mit einer seichten flach runden Bucht.
Ausgezackt , mit merklichen Zähnen geradelinichten Umrisses.
Balg, oder Hülse , worian Blumen eingeschlossen sind . Spatha . 13.
Bälglein , gluma , an den Blüthen der Grasse. 12.64.
Bandförmig , lineare , lang ohne merkliche Breite, am Rande geradelinicht .
Bart , lange , nicht steife , häufig nahe und meist parallel bey einander sitzende Haare.
Basis . 22. Verlängerte oder verschmälerte Basis an Blättern. 30.
Bastard Arten , ſpecies hybridæ. 109.
Baum. 16. 25. hat einen, von der Wurzel ab zurechnen , ein fachen ausdaurenden Stamm.
Becher , an einigen ungewöhnlich gestalteten Gewächsen. 82. Beere. 75.76.
Besondre Methoden , im Gegensatz gegen die allgemeinen. 147.
Bestauden. Caulefcentia. 86.
Birn oder apfelformige Frucht. Pomum. 75.
Blasen am Tang. 82.
Blat. 27.
Winkelblat , axillare.
Saamenblat , cotyledon.
Wurzelblat , radicale. 29.
Blüthenblat , bractea. 31.
Blätgen , foliolum, 30.
Blatscheide , vagina. 26.
Blätter Ansätze oder Ohren. Stipula. 26.31.
Blätterschwamme. 81 .
das Blühen , inflorescentia. 87.
Blume. 11.45.49. Corolla.
mit angewachsener Decke. 51.
Blümgen der zusammengesetzten Blumen . 60.
röhrigte , flofculofi , tubulofi. 60.
geschweiste , planipetali , ligulati , ſemi-
flofculi. 60.
Blumendecke. Calyx. 50.
Blumenscheide oder Balg. Spatha. 63. Blüthe. 45. Flos non Corollatus,
nackte Blüthe , nudus. 45.
Blüthenstand , Blüthenart , der Blüthen Anlage , Betrachtungen des Blühens. 87.
Boden , receptaculum , in zusammengesetzten Blumen. 59.
gemeinschaftlicher mehrerer Fruchtwerkzeuge. 77.
Bohrende Wurzel. 23 .
Borsten , steife Haare nahe beysammen. 38.
Botanik , dreyerley , 1.2 . Fundamentalbotanik , angewendete Botanik , Physiologie.
Botanische Namen im Gegensatz gegen Usual Namen. 152 .
Brämen , gebrämt , alatus.
Brand. 84.
Buchse der Mooſſe , Capitulum. 78.
Bund, fafciculus. 36.
Buntfarbig , variegatus. 84.
Büsche oder Gebüsche. 94. Virgulta &dumeta,
Büschel von Wurzelstrengen . 23 .
Büschel oder Rispe. Panicula. 37.
Calender , botanischer . 88.
Capsel. 72.
Character. 8.
Classe. 11. 117.
Climate. 89.
Dachziegeln ähnliche Lage, imbricatus ſitus. 29.
Dauben oder Schalenstücke an Capseln. Valve. 73 .
Deckel der Büchse an den Moossen. Operculum capituli,
Dolde s. Umbelle.
Doppelte Blumendecke. 63.
Dornen. 38. Spina.
Drüsen. Glandula. 38.
Durchgängige Merkmale. 124.
Durchstochenes Blat , perfoliatum. 30.
Eigenthümiche Merkmale , und Charactere. Nota & Character eſſentialis. 123.
Einblättrigt , monophyllus , monopetalus. 52.
Eingedruckt , depreſſus. 29.
Einjährig , s. Jahre , Dauer. Kinseitig , fecundus , wenn alle an einer Are ihrer Länge nach angewachsene Theile , (Blätter oder Blumen) insgesammt nach einer Seite sich neigen.
Elliptisch , eine krumlinigte Figur mit zwey ungleich langen
Durchmessern , da die größte Breite in der Mitte Der Länge trift.
Erbsenblumen, corolla papilion acea. 56.
Eyförmig , eine krumlinigte ablange Figur , an der Basis stumpfer als an der Spitze.
verkehrt eyförmig , wenn die Spitze stumpfer ist als die Basis. 28.
Fåcher in den Früchten , loculi pericarpii. 73.
Fahne in Erbsenblumen , vexillum. 56.
Fahnenförmige Haarkrone auf den Saamen. Pappus plumofus. 72 .
Farbe , gefärbt. 22.
Farrenkräuter , filices. 15.79.
Faserigtes Gewebe, contextus fibrofus. 39.
Felder , arva. 95.
Fell an Blätterschwammen , velum. ৪০.
Filz , filzartiges Gewebe. Contextus coactilis. 39.
Finger , in Finger getheiltes Blat. 30.
Flachblätterigte zusammengesetzte Blume. Flos compoſitus planipetalus. 61 .
Flügel an Erbsenblumen. Ale floris papilionacei. 56 . an einem Saamkorn. 71 .
Fortlaufendes Blat. Decurrens. 30.
Frucht. Die junge Frucht. Germen. 68. Die ausgewachsene. 61 .
Fruchtbalg. Conceptaculum. 75.
Fruchtwerkzeuge. Partes Fructificationis. 43.
Fructification. 43 .
Gabeln. Cirrhus. 37.
Gallen. 84. Ein Werk der Jusecten. Gaile insectorum opus.
Gartenland . Culta. 95.
Gattungen. Genera.. 117.
Gefärbt , s. Farbe.
Gefiedertes Blat. Fol. pinnatum. 30.
Gefüllte Blumen. 83. Fl. pleni,
Gemeine Namen , im Gegensatz gegen botanische systematische Namen. 152 .
Gemischte Methoden. 144.
Gerolltes Blat. 30.
Gesammlete Blumen , eine Art der zusammengesetzten. Ag
gregatæ. 61.
Geschlecht der Pflanzen. 46 .
Trennung der Geschlechtstheile . 47.
Geschlechtlose Blüthen. 49. Fl. neutri.
Gestrahlte zusammengesetzte Blumen. Compofitæ radiatæ. 61 .
Gipfel , hängender. 25. Caules nutans.
sprossender. 26. Caulis prolifer. 26.
Glandeln , s . Drufen.
Glatter Rand , marge integerrimus. 29.
Glockenförmige Blume. 54.
Grannen der Grasse. 64. Ariſtæ.
Grasse, Gramina. 11.64.
Griffel der Staubwege. Stylus piſtilli. 68.
Grösse , wie anzugeben.20.
Haare mit Haaren wie Augenlieder. Ciliatus. 28.
Haarkrone der Saamen. 71 .
Hacken. Hamus. 38.
Handförmige Wurzel oder Blat. 23. 28.
baut. 24. Des Saamen. 70.
Hayne oder Dickungen der Wålder. 94. nemora.
Heiden. 95. ericeta.
Helm , Blumen in dieser Form. Flos galetus. 56.
Herzförmig. 28 .
Holz , eine der verschiedenen Lagen , woraus ein Stamm ber steht. 24.
Hülle der Umbellen, und der in einem Quirl oder kranzförmig stehenden Blumen. Involucrum. 32.
Hülse , legumen . 72.
Blumenhülse. Spatba. 13.
Huth der Schwämme. pileus. über die Büchse an den Moossen. Calyptra. 79.
Jahre , die Ringe des Holzes im Querschnitte eines Stam mes. 24.
einjährig zweyjährig, ausdaurend. 24.
Kätzgen, Schwänzgen. Amentum. 12. 65.
Keilförmig. 28.
Keime der Pflanzen. 40.
Kein im Saamkorn. 70. Corculum .
Keimende Blüthen , Flor. vivipari, 84.
Kerbe . 28. gekerbt , crenatus.
Kern des Saamkorns. 70. Nucleus.
Klaffend in weitgesperrten Winkeln. 27. patens.
Klammer , s. Gabeln .
Klettrender Stamm. 25. Caulis ſcandens.
Kleye. 38. Strigæ , furfur.
Knollen. 23. tuber.
Knopf von Blumen. 36.
Knospen. Gemma. 16. 41.
das Knospentragen, gemmatio. 86.
Knoten am Tang. 82.
Kopf , s. Knopf . Röpfgen der Moosse , s. Büchse.
Kolben bey den Moossen. Clavæ. 14.
Körner an den Wurzeln. granuloſa radix . 23.
Körner in den Fructificationen der Farrenkräuter. 79.
Krankheiten der Kräuter. 84.
Kraut. Herba. 16. 25.
Kreutz , ins Kreutz liegende Aeste als Arme . Caulis brachiatus. 27 .
kreutzförmige Blumen , Fl, tetrapetali cruciati. 55.
Kriechende Wurzel oder Stamm.
Krone , corymbus , eine Art des Blumenstandes. 36. auf den Saamen. Corona feminis. 71.
Kugelförmige Blume. 54.
Lage der Theile der Pflanzen. 22.
der Geburtsorte der Kräuter. 91.
Lancettenförmig , am Ende zugespitzt mit einem krumlinigten
Rand. 28. lanceolatus.
Lappen , eines zertheilten Blatts. 28. Lobus.
Lappen der Blume , Laciniæ. 52.
Laubholz. Sylvæ frondeſcentes . 94.
Leyerförmiges Blat , lyratum , in Querstucke zerstückt , und in Ansehung des Umrisses des ganzen, forn breit und nach der Basis zu verschmätert , so daß die Quer stücken kleiner und kleiner werden, das forderste ungepaarte Stück aber das größte ist . 28.
Linienförmig oder bandförmig , linearis , lang ohne merkliche Breite , mit geradelinigten Rande. 28.
Lippen in Blumen. Labia. 56 .
insbesondre wird mit diesem Worte' ohne Zusatz die untere Lippe solcher Blumen verstanden , labellum.
Malvenartige Blume. Malvacea corolla. 55.
Männliche Blüthe oder Pflanze. Flos aut planta mafculina. 47.
Mangelhafte Staubfäaden. Stamina manca ſ . ſterilia . 47.
Blüthen. Mancus flos. 84.
Mark. Medulla. 24.
Marschland. 93.
Maschen des Gräders der Blätter. 34.
Maskirter Kopf, Blumen in dieser Form . Corolla perſonata, galeata. 56.
Meelthau. Eryfipe. 91.
Meergewiähse. pl. marinæ. 95.
Membranös. 29. Dunn , durchsichtig , und dabey mit einiger Elasticität fest.
Methode , 120.
durch Abtheilung. 121.
durch Zusammenfügung. 121.
gemischte. 144.
Methoden , natürliche. 121. 143. naturales.
willkührliche oder der Kunst. 121. 134. artificiales .
besondre Methoden. partiales. 146.
Misgeburten. 82.
Mondförmig , lunatum fol. 28 .
Mooß , im weitläuftigen Verstande. 14.
Moosse im eigentlichen eingeschränkten Verstande. 78 .
Mündung der Blume. Limbus. 53.
Nachenförmig , carinatus. 29.
mit Rändern. ib . Nadeln. Folia aceroſa. Länglichte und schmale immer grüne
Blätter. 28.
Nadelholz. Sylvæ acerofæ. 94.
Nagel der Blumenblätter. Unguis. 59. Nakt , nudus , der Gegensatz von vielen Eigenschaften , als des rauhseyns , des stachlichten , der Bekleidung mit Blättern , u. d . m.
Narbe des Saamkorns. Hilus. 71.
Wath in Saamengehäuſſen. Sutura. 72.
Natürliche Methoden. 121. Methodi naturales.
Plan der Natur. Syftema natura. 121.
Nebentheile der Blüthen. 58. Partes floris acceſſoriæ. Ein Theil der Linnäanischen Nectariorum .
Nelkenförmige Blumen, Corolla Caryophyllæa. 55.
Nerven. 33.29.
Niernförmig. 28.
Nuß. 71. Nux , Drupa.
Ohren oder Blattansätze der Blätter, Nebenblätter. Stipulæ 31.
Orchisblumen. Corolla orchidea. 57.
Ordnung , oder Familien unter den Pflanzen. 117. Ordo.
Palissaden , Blätter der zusammengesetzten Blumendecke in dieser Form. 62. Squamæ parallelæ
Palmen. Palmgeschlecht. Palma. 13.
Parabolisch , ein krumlinigter Umriß , forn mit einer stumpfen Röndung , der sich nach der Basis zu meist wieder schließt oder zusammenlauft.
Parenchyma. 39.
Partheyen , verwachsen der Staubfäden in Partheyen. Adelphia, mon - di - poly- adelphia. L. 66.
Pfalwurzel. 23. rad. perpendicularis.
Pfeilförmig . ſagittatum fol. 28. Ein in Umrisse dreyeckigtes Blat , ans dessen Fläche an der Basis ein anderes Dreyeck ausgeschnitten ist.
Pfeiler in innern der Fruchte 74. receptacula ſeminum in pericarpio .
Pflanzgen im keimenden Saamkorn. 70. plumula.
Pian der Natur. 121.
Platte eines Blumenblattes. 53. bractea ſ . Lamina petali .
Platblühende zusammengesetzte Blumen. 61 .
Compofitæ
Corymbofa.
Fresentirteller , Blumen in solcher Form. 54. Corolla hypocrateriformis . Proportion. 20.
Querstücke , in Querstücken getheilt . Pinna, pinnatifidus. 28.
Quirl. verticillus florum , foliorum. 27. 35.
Radförmige Blume. Corolla rotata. 55.
Rand . 21.
Ranken , flagellum , farmentum. 25.
Rechts und Links. 22.
Reguläre und Irreguläre Blumen. 53 .
Relativische Merkmale und Charactere , der Gegensatz von den eigenthümlichen. 122.
Nota & Character
relativus oppofitus effentiali.
Relativische Namen. 152.
Reyhen , in zwey oder mehr Reyhen. Diſtichus, hexaſtichus.
Ribbe. Rachis. 33 .
Richtung der Gewächse. 87.
Rieme. 37. Cirrhus. Rinde. 24. Cortex.
Rinnenförmig , canaliculatus. 29.
Rispe. Panicula. 37. Röhre der Blume. Tubus corollæ. 53.
Röhrenförmig , tubulofus. 29.
Roggenzapfen , oder so genannte Mutterkörner. 84. Clavus.
Rosenförmige Blume. rosacea Corolla. 55.
Rost. Rubigo. 84.
Rückfall der Abarten. 112.
Ruinen. 95. ruderata.
Ruthenförniger Stamm oder Ast. virgatus. 27. mit verschiedenen kleinen schwachen Aestgen ohne Ordnung.
Saame 70.
Saamenblätter . 71. Folia feminalia.
Saamenstücken , Cotyledones. 71 .
Saftgruben, Saftbehältnisse in den Blumen. Nectarium. 58.
Säulgen in einer Capsel , Columella. 74.
Schaft , Scapus. 25.
Schale, 71 . an Schwämmen , Volva. 80.
Schalenstücken oder Ribben der Capseln. valve. 73.
Scheideformig. vaginaforme , vaginans. 30.
Scheidewände in der Wurzel , diaphragmata. 24.
in Fruchten. diffepementa. 73.
Schiffgen in Erbsenblumen. 56. Carina.
Schild an schorffigten Gewächsen. 82. Pelta.
Schildförmiges Blat. folium peltatum. Da der Stiel auf die Fläche des Blattes auffällt.
Schimmel. 84 .
Schlaf . 87.
Schlauch an Blumen. 56.
Schlund der Blume. Faux corolla. 53 .
Schlüssel der Methode. 120.
Schmetterlingsform in Blumen , s. Erbsenblumen.
Schnabel an der Büchse der Moosse. Operculum.
Schoote. Siliqva. 72.
Schorffigte Gewächse. crustacer. 14.
Schörgen , Silicula. 74.
Schuppen , Squama. 32.
der Knospen. 41 .
der Decke in zusammengesetzten Blumen. 62.
Schwämme , Fungi. 16.80.
Schwänzgen , s . Kätzgen.
Schwerdförmig , enfiforme folium. 29.
Seite. 22.
Stand von einer Seite zur andern, alternatim .
Singularitäten . 82 .
Sommergewachse. plantæ annur.
Sonne, mit und gegen die Sonne , s . rechts und links.
Spatelförmiges Blat, ſpatulatum, forn zu parabolisch, nach der Basis verschmälert.
Specifische Namen, 162.
Spielart , ſ. Abart.
Spindelförmige Wurzel, fufiformis radix. 23.
Spize. 22. Apex.
Splint. Liber. 24.
Spondonförmig , dreyeckigt , mit verlängerten gerade aussiehende Spitzen an der Basis. haftatum folium、 28.
Sporn in Blumen. Calcar. 56.
Sprossender Gipfel des Stammes. 26. Caulisprolifer. 26 .
Sprossende Blume. Flos prolifer. 83 .
Stacheln. Spinæ. 38.
Stachelschwämme. 81 .
Stamm. 25. Truncus. Caulis.
Staub , in den Staubfächern der Blüthen. Pollen. 66.
Staubfach , Staubbeutel , Anthera. 13.43.66.
Staubfaden. Stamen. 13.43.66.
Staubweg. Stylus. 13. 43. 68.
Staude , Suffrutex. 17. 25. Steinobst. 75.
Stengel. 34. Pedunculus univerſalis.
Sternförmig. 29.
Stiel oder Strunk , s . Strunk.
Stiel der Blätter. 32. Petiolus.
der Blume. 32. Pedunculus.
bebrämter Stiel , alatus. 30.
Stielgen , Pedicellus. 34.
Stigma. Stigma. 68.
Stoff oder Substanz. 38.88 .
Stränge der Wurzeln, s. Wurzeln.
Strauch , Frutex. 25.
Strauß , flacher , s . Krone.
spitzer , Thyrfus. 37.
Strunk oder Stiel der Schwämme auch Farrenkräuter , Scipes. 16. 25.
Substanz. 21.38.88.
Synonyme. 162 .
System. 120.
Tangeln , s . Nadeln.
Tonnenförmige Blume , corolla ovata. 55.
Trichterförmige Blume, Corolla infundibuliformis . 54.
Triften. Pafcua. 95.
Umbelle. 32.35.
uneigentliche Umbelle. Cyma.
Umschlag um ein Saamkorn , Arillus. 71.
Unabhängige Namen. 152 .
Unächte Beeren , s . Beeren.
Saamengehäusse , ſ . Saamengehäusse.
Unbewehrt ben den Grasarten , auch sonsten. 65. muticus,
Ungewöhnlich gestaltete Gewächse. Anomalæ pl. 15. 82.
Unzertheilte Blume. 52.
Usual Namen. 156..
Verlängerte oder verschmälerte Basis . 30.
Vertheilung. 21.
Verwandlung der Pflanzen. 110 .
Verwachsen der Staubfäden und Staubwege. Syngeneſia &
Gynandria L. 66.
Vielblättrigt. polyphyllus & polypetalus. 52.
Wagerechte Wurzel , horizontalis. 23.
Wälder. 94.
Warzen. 38 .
Weibliche Blüthen. Flos fœmininus. 47.
Weitschweifigter Stamm. Caulis diffufus. 25.
Wiesen. 95.
Willkührliche Methoden. Methodi artificiales. 121.
Winkel , Axilla. 22 .1
weitgesperte , spitze Winkel. 27.
Wolle, Tomentum. 38.
Wuchs der Pflanze im ganzen. 84.
Wulst an Schwämmen. Annulus. 80.
Wurzel. 22.
das Wurzelmachen. 86. Radicatio.
Wurzlender Stamm. Caulis radicans.
Wurzelsprossen des Stammes. Stolones. 25.
Würzelgen im aufgehenden Saamen. Roſtellum. 70.
Zacken. 38. Murex.
Sahn , gezähnt. dentatus. 28. sageförmig gezähnt , ferratus.
Zapfen. Conus. Strobilus. 12. 65.
Zasern der Wurzeln , ſ . Wurzel.
Zeiten im Wachsen der Pflanzen. 88.
Zellenförmiges Gewebe. 39 .
Zernagt, erofus. 29.
Zerschliffen. laciniatus. 29.
Zerstückt , partitus. 28.
Zopf. Coma. 31.
Zusatze der Blume. 58.
der Blumendecke. 62 .
Zusammenfügungsweg bey Methoden. 120.
Zusammengesetzte Blume. Flos compofitus. 58.
Zusammengedruckt, compreſſus. 29.
Zweylippigte Blume. Flos labiatus. 56.
Zweyspaltiges oder zweyfussiges Schiffgen in Erbsenblumen.
Carina bipes. 56.
Zwiebeln . 23. 40. Bulbus.
Zwiebelartige Körner. 40.
Zwitterblüthe. Flos hermaphroditus. 47.
Second Appendix
Explanation of the Copperplates.
Figure 1-12. Roots, to § 31.48.
Fig. 1. Branched.
Fig. 2. Straggly.
Fig. 3. Spindle-shaped.
Fig. 4. Spherical. Bunium.
Fig. 5. Knobby. Filipendula.
Fig. 6. Scaly.
Fig. 7. Leafy bulb.
Fig. 8. Scaly bulb. Lilium.
Fig. 9. Dense bulb. Crocus.
Fig. 10-11. Knobby roots of orchid species.
Fig. 12. Cluster-shaped tubers. Ophrys Nidus avis.
Figure 13-31. Leaves, to § 36.
Fig. 13. Arrow-shaped.
Fig. 14. Spondylous (spine-like).
Fig. 15. Divided into lobes.
Fig. 16. Palmate.
Fig. 17. Divided into crosspieces.
Fig. 18. Layered.
Fig. 19-20. Serrated.
Fig. 21-22. Sagittate-serrated, simple and double.
Fig. 23-24. Notched, simple and double.
Fig. 25. Spreading.
Fig. 26. Hollowed.
Fig. 27. Wavy.
Fig. 28. With outspread lobes, runcinatum.
Fig. 29. Sword-shaped.
Fig. 30-31. Boat-shaped, with and without edges.
Figure 32-38. Leaves, to § 37.
Fig. 32. Clustered.
Fig. 33. Like roof tiles.
Fig. 34. Continuous.
Fig. 35. With continuous petiole.
Fig. 36-37. Sheath-like leaves.
Fig. 38. Shield-shaped.
Figure 39-46. Leaves, to § 38.
Fig. 39. With fingers.
Fig. 40. With fingers like toes at the base.
Fig. 41. Doubly curved.
Fig. 42-43. Feathered, with an odd leaf.
Fig. 44. With forks.
Fig. 45. With intermixed large and small leaves.
Fig. 46. Doubly feathered.
Figure 47. Flower petals, to § 39.
Figure 48-51. Ears (a, o), to § 40.
Figure 52-54. Leaves, to § 42.
Fig. 52. With narrowed base.
Fig. 53. With fringed petiole.
Fig. 54. With radiating veins.
Figure 55-63. Inflorescence, to § 41, § 44.
Fig. 55. Whorl or crown with bracts.
Fig. 56-57. Umbels with and without bracts.
Fig. 58. False umbel.
Fig. 59. Cluster.
Fig. 60. Flat bouquet or crown.
Fig. 61. Grapelike arrangement.
Fig. 62-63. Panicles.
Figure 64. Forks, to § 45.
Figure 65. Organic parts of the covering, to § 46, from du Hamel, Phytologiae, t. 13, fig. 19.
Figure 66-70. To § 48, 49.
Fig. 66. Bulb-like seeds on the stem. Dentaria bulbifera.
Fig. 67. With flowers intermixed. Allium.
Fig. 68-70. Buds.
Figure 71-74. To § 51.
Fig. 71. Flax flower.
Fig. 72. Bellflower.
Fig. 73. Tulip.
Fig. 74. Rose.
Figure 75-94. Flowers, to § 58-64.
Fig. 75. Flower from leaves in many layers. Nymphaea.
Fig. 76. Double flower cover.
Fig. 77. Funnel-shaped flower.
Fig. 78. In platter shape.
Fig. 79. Cup-shaped.
Fig. 80. Bell-shaped.
Fig. 81. Spherical.
Fig. 82. Barrel-shaped.
Fig. 83. Radiate-shaped.
Fig. 84-85. Clove-shaped.
Fig. 86. Rose-shaped.
Fig. 87. Mallow-like.
Fig. 88-90. Bilabiate flowers.
Fig. 91-92. Pea flowers.
a. The banner.
b. One of the wings.
c. The keel.
Fig. 93-94. Orchid flowers.
Figure 95-100. Additions and auxiliary parts of the flowers, to § 65.
Fig. 95-97. Additions.
Fig. 98-100. Auxiliary parts.
Fig. 95. Fritillaria.
Fig. 96. Ranunculus.
Fig. 97. Silene.
Fig. 98. Asclepias.
Fig. 99. Aconitum.
Fig. 100. Parnassia.
Figure 101-111. Composite flowers, to § 66-71.
Fig. 101. Helianthus, a. The entire composite flower with rays, b. its floral cover, c. a genderless, curled flower from the edge, natural size, d. a regular tubular flower from the center.
Fig. 102. Arnica, c. A female curled flower from the edge.
Fig. 103. Crepis, a flat-leafed flower, with a cover with an addition.
Fig. 104. A broadly flowering flower.
Fig. 105. A knob-shaped flower.
Fig. 106. With genderless flowers at the edge.
Fig. 107. A collected flower, Scabiosa.
Fig. 108-109. Flower base.
Fig. 110-111. Hair crowns.
Figure 112-113. Flower sheaths, to § 72.
Fig. 112. Allium.
Fig. 113. Zoftera.
Figure 114-117. Grass flowers, to § 73-74.
Fig. 114.
Fig. 116. Spikelets with many flowers.
Fig. 115. With one flower. a. Flower cover, b. Flower.
Fig. 117. Elymus, a. Cover.
Figure 118-119. Catkins, to § 75.
Fig. 118. Corylus, a, b, c. Male flowers, d, e. Female flowers.
Fig. 119. A cone. Pinus.
Figure 120-129. Seed pods, to § 82-83.
Fig. 120, 123, 126. Capsules with shell pieces and seams along the length.
Fig. 121-122. Pods with covers.
Fig. 124-125. Punctured capsules.
Fig. 123. Capsule with chambers, partitions, and columns.
Fig. 126. Seeds attached to shell pieces.
Fig. 127. Pod.
Fig. 128. Husk.
Fig. 129. Fruit capsule.
Figure 130-135. Moss fruiting, to § 87.
Fig. 132. The stem with leaves at its base.
Fig. 133-134. Flower-like germinations.
Fig. 135. Fruiting in the form of a catkin.
Figure 136-138. Fern fruiting, to § 88.
Fig. 136. a. Lower side, b. Upper side, c. Natural size.
Fig. 137. Fruiting of Acrostichum septentrionale under magnification.
Fig. 138. Osmunda spicant, fertile and infertile leaves on a stem.
Figure 139-144. Sponges, to § 89.
Fig. 139. Phallus impudicus. A sponge emerging from its egg or shell.
Fig. 140. c, c. Fleece, d. Bulbous.
Fig. 141. Leaf sponge.
Fig. 142. Pitted sponge.
Fig. 143. Spiny sponge.
Fig. 144. Sponge with a net over the cap.
Figure 145-148. Unusually shaped herbs, to § 90.
Fig. 145. Marchantia.
Fig. 146-147. Lichens.
Fig. 148. Fucus.
Memo regarding the promised explanation of § 96 concerning colors.
My intention was to include an attempt to define colors and their names in this introduction, but after giving further thought to various circumstances, I am led to change this plan and conclude that it would be wiser to publish this attempt separately, as will happen shortly. This is all the more so because such a definition of colors can be of general benefit to natural history and, in any case, is more essential in zoology than in botany.The method for such a definition is as follows. Colors are phenomena that can be produced in various ways, according to preference, through the optician's prism, through chemical mixtures by color artists and dyers, and through dry colors, watercolor, oil paints, and melted colors used by painters. Since the watercolor paints of miniature artists are commonly used to illustrate natural history, we will adhere to these colors.
Once one determines how this or that color can be produced using watercolors, one obtains a somewhat precise understanding of the color, in such a way that people can understand each other and use the same clear language. This method becomes much easier and more convenient when a sample of the color produced from the indicated mixture is presented as well.
While the diversity and multiplicity of color mixtures are inexhaustible, there is, nonetheless, some classification involved. The nuances are not so critical; a few hundred carefully chosen samples of the most commonly named colors can easily fit on a few sheets, and such an attempt, although it will always remain incomplete, can nevertheless be improved according to preference.